REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

<  liirehvii  ,190     . 

3  Accession  No.     82919     .   CImsNo. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING 

BY 

C.   FRANKLIN    EDMINSTER 

Instructor  in  Department  of  Fine  Arts, 

I'RATT  INSTITUTK,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK 


^  01"  THE       ^J* 

UNIVERSITT 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


4 


Copyright,  IfOO,  by 
C.    FRANKLIN    EDMINSTER. 


PREFACE. 


This  book  is  planned  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  treat- 
ise on  elementary  architectural  drawing.  The  material 
of  which  it  is  composed  is  in  line  with  the  evening  work 
carried  on  at  Pratt  Institute.  The  order  in  which  the 
subjects  are  here  arranged  need  not  be  followed  by  the 
student.  He  should,  if  a  beginner,  commence  with 
elementary  work,  such  as  problems  in  projection  or  in 
geometry.  As  a  rule  it  would  be  unwise  to  spend  the 
time  requisite  to  perform  all  the  geometric  problems ; 
but  some  of  the  more  important  ones  will  be  found  very 
helpful,  especially  in  the  matter  of  accuracy.     From 


the  work  given,  several  courses  can  be  mapped  out  to 
meet  the  varying  demands. 

The  plates  in  the  various  subjects  are  arranged  con- 
secutively ;  that  is,  each  new  sheet  presents  a  problem 
a  little  more  difficult  than  that  of  the  preceding.  For 
instance,  in  the  study  of  the  frame  house  the  plan  is  first 
drawn,  and  with  this  as  a  basis  a  complete  study  of  all 
its  details  and  framing  are  given,  and  in  many  instances 
rriore  than  one  form  of  detail  which  might  be  used  in 
the  same  position. 

C.  Franklin  Edminster. 


82919 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/architecturaldraOOedmirich 


1.     Drawing  Materials  and  Their  Uses 

II.     Geometrical  Problems      .... 

III.     Simple      Projection,      Introducing      the 

Principles  of  Working  Drawings     - 

IV.     Intersection  of  Solids  and  Development 

of  Surfaces       -----      40 


CONT 

ENTS. 

PAGF. 

CHAPTER. 

7 

V. 

12 

VI. 

VII. 

22 

VIII. 

IX. 

Projection  of  Shadows 
Instrumental  Perspective 
Orders  of  Architecture 
Study  of  a  Frame  House 
Studies  in  Masonry  Construction 


PAGE. 

61 

90 

114 

150 
200 


^  OF  THB       1  , 

UNIVERSITT 

ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

NOTES  ON  MATERIALS. 


The  student  beginning  the  study  of  architectural 
drawing  should  provide  liimself  with  the  necessary 
instruments  of  a  good  quality.  He  should  not  be 
hampered  by  using  inferior  materials,  as  many  diffi- 
culties will  arise  under  even  the  best  conditions. 

Drawings  Boards.  — One  of  the  best  methods  of 
making  a  drawing  board  is  to  glue  together  narrow 
strips  of  boards,  fastening  two  cleats  (about  two 
inches  wide)  across  the  back  in  such  a  way  that 
there  will  be  perfect  freedom  for  the  wood  to  ex- 
pand and  contract,  which  it  surely  will  do  as  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere  changes.  This  freedom 
may  be  obtained  by  cutting  slots  in  the  cleats 
through  which  the  screws  pass  and  placing  iron 
washers  under  the  heads  of  the  screws.     A  much 


cheaper  board  can  be  constructed  by  securing  nar- 
row pieces  across  each  end,  which  serve  to  hold  the 
board  from  warping.  This  form  of  board  will  an- 
swer very  well,  especially  if  the  paper  used  is  not 
stretched.  It  is  extremely  important  that  one  end 
and  one  side  of  the  board  should  be  perfectly 
straight. 

Drawing:  Paper. — Drawing  paper  that  is  to  be 
used  for  general  draughting  and  line  work  in  pencil  or 
ink  should  have  a  firm  smooth  surface  that  is  not 
easily  roughened  when  erasures  are  made.  As  a 
rule,  paper  that  is  well  adapted  to  line  work  will  not 
receive  a  flat  wash  readily.  Paper  suitable  for  wash 
drawings  is  made  with  a  less  firm  but  rougher  sur- 
face  than  for  line  work.     Whatman's  cold  pressed 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


paper  possesses  unusual  properties,  in  that  it  works 
well  for  both  line  and  wash  drawings.  For  general 
detail  work,  some  of  the  tinted  papers  are  more 
pleasant  to  work  upon  than  white,  as  the  white  is 
rather  trying  to  the  eyes,  especially  when  used  in 
the  evening.  For  highly  finished  drawings,  how- 
ever, white  paper  is  usually  preferred.  The  right 
side  of  the  paper  can  usually  be  determined  by  hold- 
ing it  to  the  light  and  finding  the  water  mark, 
which  should  read  correctly  on  the  side  used. 
Drawing  paper  may  be  obtained  in  sheets  of  stand- 
ard sizes  as  follows:  Cap,  13"  x  17";  Demy,  15"  x 
20";  Medium,  i7"x22";  Royal,  19"  x  24";  Super 
Royal,  19"  X  27";  Imperial,  22"  x  30";  Elephant, 
23"  x  28";  Atlas,  26"  x  34";  Double  Elephant,  27" 
X  40";  Antiquarian,  31"  x  53";  Emperor,  48"  x 
68".  The  above  terms  apply  only  to  the  sizes  of 
the  sheets,  and  not  in  any  way  to  the  grade  or  qual- 
ity of  the  paper. 

T-Square. — The  T-square  is  made  of  two  parts, 
tlie  head  and  blade,  which  are  fastened  together  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  This  instrument  should  be  used 
for  drawing  horizontal  lines  only,  always  holding  the 
head  against  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  board.  Should 
the  draughtsman  allow  himself  to  use  either  left  or 


right  side  of  the  l)oard  at  will,  the  results  obtained 
would  be  very  inaccurate,  owing  to  the  fact  that  two 
ends  or  sides  of  the  board  are  seldom,  if  ever,  parallel. 
Again,  many  times  the  T-square  blade  does  not  form 
right  angles  with  the  head.  One  may  readily  see  that 
horizontal  lines  drawn  imder  such  conditions  would  not 
be  parallel. 

Triangles. — The  draughtsman  should  provide  him- 
self with  two  triangles;  the  45°,  and  the  30°  and  60°. 
The  triangles  are  used  for  drawing  all  lines  that  are  not 
horizontal.  Vertical  lines  should  always  be  drawn  by 
placing  the  triangle  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  T-square 
blade,  holding  the  pencil  or  pen  in  a  plane  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  surface  of  the  paper,  inclining  it  slightly,  and 
drawing  upward,  but  never  downward.  In  drawing 
horizontal  lines,  the  pencil  or  pen  should  l)e  held  in  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  paper,  inclining  it  slightly 
to  the  right.  Draw  from  left  to  right.  Angles  of 
45°,  30°,  60°  and  90°,  with  a  horizontal  line  can  be 
drawn  at  once  by  placing  the  triangle  on  the  T-square 
blade. 

Instruments.—  Instruments  should  be  selected  with 
tlie  greatest  care.  It  is  much  better  to  have  a  few 
pieces  of  excellent  quality,  than  a  great  number  of  in- 
ferior make.    Choose  quality  rather  than  quantity.    In- 


ARCFflTECTURAL    DRAWING. 


struniciits  should  be  well  cared  for,  properly  wiped 
each  time  after  using  and  the  points  prevented  from 
contact  with  hard  substances  which  will  tend  to  in- 
jure them. 

Compasses. — When  drawing  with  the  compasses 
the  head  should  be  held  lightly  between  the  thumb  and 
two  fingers,  moving  the  leg  containing  the  lead  in  the 
direction  traversed  by  the  hands  of  a  clock,  inclining  it 
slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  line  to  be  drawn.  The 
joints  in  the  legs  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  keep  the 
lower  sections  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  pa- 
]jcr,  and  when  a  circle  is  of  such  a  size  as  will  not  ad- 
mit of  this  the  lengthening  bar  should  be  inserted. 

Ruling  Pen.- — The  ruling  pen  is  a  very  important 
instrument  and  should  be  made  of  the  very  best  hard- 
ened steel ;  if  not,  it  will  give  the  student  endless 
trouble.  Most  of  the  prepared  inks  in  general  use  are 
provided  with  a  quill  in  the  cork  of  the  bottle  which 
lifts  a  certain  amount  of  ink.  The  quill  may  be  inserted 
between  the  nibs  of  the  pen  and  the  ink  allowed  to 
flow  into  the  pen.  The  ink  should  not  be  more  than 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep  between  the  nibs.  Clean 
the  pen  frequently  by  immersing  it  first  into  clear 
water  and  then  passing  a  piece  of  cloth  or  chamois 
skin  between  the  nibs.    The  pen  should  never  be  put 


away  after  using  without  being  thoroughly  cleansed. 

Pencil. —  The  character  of  the  work  performed  by 
a  student  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  condition  in 
which  he  keeps  his  pencil.  It  is  impossible  to  do  ac- 
curate work  with  a  dull  point.  For  all  rule  work  the 
wedge-shaped  point  possesses  an  advantage  over  the 
round  point,  in  that  it  has  a  greater  wearing  surface, 
hence  will  not  require  sharpening  so  often.  For  all 
freehand  work  nothing  but  the  round  or  conical  point 
should  be  used.  Some  draughtsmen  prefer  this  point 
for  rule  work  as  well.  The  wood  should  be  cut  well 
back,  leaving  at  least  one-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  lead 
exposed.  One  of  the  best  sharpeners  for  a  pencil  is  a 
fine  flat  file,  on  which  the  lead  should  be  frequently  ap- 
plied, to  produce  a  sharp  point.  Where  great  accuracy 
is  required,  the  beginner  should  use  a  4  H  or  6  H  pen- 
cil. As  skill  in  draughting  is  acquired,  a  softer  grade 
may  be  substituted.  A  medium  grade  pencil  should  be 
used  for  lining-in  the  drawings  where  strength  of  line  is 
required. 

The  Scale.— A  scale  is  an  instrument  used  in  reduc- 
ing a  drawing  that  would  otherwise  be  too  large  for  the 
sheet  of  paper  on  which  it  is  to  be  placed.  For  in- 
stance, if  we  have  a  house  measuring  40  x  60  ft.,  the 
drawing  may  be  made  on  a  scale  of   ^   of  an  inch  to  i 


ARCHITFXTURAL    DRAWING. 


ft.  The  space  occupied  upon  the  plate  would  be  lo  x 
15  in.,  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  actual  size.  In 
using  this  scale,  or  proportion,  we  have  taken  an  actual 
^  of  an  -in.  and  considered  it  i  ft. ;  and  this  being  taken 
as  I  ft.  we  divide  it  into  12  parts,  each  part  being  equal 
to  I  in.  There  will  be  found  several  different  scales 
upon  the  instrument,  all  of  which  are  divided  in  a  simi- 
lar manner. 

Irregular  Curve.— This  instrument  is  used  in  draw- 
ing curves  that  cannot  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
the  compass.  Such  curved  lines  usually  pass  through 
a  succession  of  points  which  have  already  been  foimd. 
The  edge  of  the  irregular  curve  should  be  so  placed  (by 
repeated  trials)  as  to  pass  through  as  many  points  as 
possible  and  also  a  portion  of  the  line  already  drawn. 
Never  draw  through  the  last  point  covered  by  the  ir- 
regular curve.  This  operation  requires  a  great  deal  of 
care  in  order  to  produce  a  perfectly  smooth  curve. 

Pcncilingf. — -Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed 
upon  the  first  penciling  of  a  drawing.  All  drawings, 
whether  to  be  inked-in  or  left  in  a  strong  pencil  line, 
should  first  be  worked  out  with  a  light  line  and  very  ac- 
curately placed.  Many  students  have  the  feeling  that 
they  can  correct  the  little  errors  while  lining-in  the 
drawing;  this  is  not  so,  the  chances  being  that  they 


will  greatly  increase  rather  than  diminish  the  faults. 

Inking.-  For  highly  finished  drawings  the  stick  In- 
dia ink  is  generally  preferred,  but  for  ordinary  work 
the  prepared  will  be  found  satisfactory.  The  great 
advantage  that  stick  ink  possesses  over  the  prepared  is, 
that  in  case  of  error  the  line  can  readily  be  removed 
with  the  ordinary  eraser.  The  disadvantage  in  using 
the  stick  ink  is  that  considerable  time  each  day  is  re- 
quired to  grind  a  fresh  supply.  In  inking  a  drawing  the 
student  should  ink  all  circles  and  arcs  of  circles  firsts 
then  beginning  with  the  upper  horizontal  line,  ink  in 
order  those  below.  With  the  vertical  lines,  begin  on 
the  left  side  of  the  plate  and  ink  each  line  in  succession. 
When  several  lines  meet  at  a  point  always  begin  to  ink 
from  that  point,  allowing  each  successive  line  to  dry 
before  drawing  another,  thus  preventing  a  blot  that 
would  otherwise  occur  at  their  junction. 

Visible  Lines. — The  visible  lines  of  an  object  are 
represented  by  a  full  black  line. 

Invisible  Lines. —  Invisible  lines  or  lines  that  are 
hidden  are  represented  by  a  dash  line,  the  dashes  be- 
ing about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  the  spaces  be- 
tween them  being  less  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 
This  line  should  be  of  the  same  strength  as  a  visible 
line. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Working:  Lines. — Working  lines  are  used  to  obtain 
certain  results,  and  if  left  in  pencil  should  be  very  light, 
or  if  shown  in  ink  should  be  very  light  red  or  short 
dash  black  lines. 

Arrow  Heads. — Arrow  heads  should  always  be  in 
black  and  made  with  great  care,  their  points  just 
touching  the  line  to  be  measured. 

Dimensioningf.— In  placing  the  dimensions  it  is  ail- 
ways  well  to  group  as  far  as  possible  and  not  scatter 
them  over  the  entire  drawing.  As  a  rule  the  same 
measurement  should  not  appear  in  more  than  one 
view.  The  measurement  line  upon  which  the  di- 
mension is  placed,  should  not  be  drawn  too  near  the 
line  measured,  usually  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch 


away.  It  is  customary  to  place  all  dimensions  under 
two  feet  as  inches,  thus:  21"  (twenty-one  inches),  and 
for  measurements  over  two  feet  as  feet  and  inches  thus : 
5'  6"  (five  feet  and  six  inches),  or  if  in  even  feet  thus : 
3'-o"  (three  feet  and  no  inches).  When  the  space  be- 
tween two  lines  is  not  sufficient  to  place  the  measure- 
ments in  the  usual  manner  they  may  be  placed  thus, 
Horizontal  measurements  should  read 
1%  from  left  to  right,  and  vertical  meas- 

4.  ''^°°  urements  should  read  upward.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  in  making  figures,  as  the 
worth  and  appearance  of  the  drawing  depends 
greatly  upon  them. 


CHAPTER   II. 


GEOMETRICAL    PROBLEMS. 


Prob.  I. — To  bisect  a  given  straight  line  A  B. 

From  points  A  and  B  as  centers  and  with  any  radius 
greater  than  half  of  the  line  A  B,  describe  arcs  above 
and  below  intersecting  in  points  i  and  2.  Draw  a 
straight  line  through  points  i  and  2,  cutting  the  line  A 
B  at  3,  so  bisecting  the  given  line  A  B. 

Prob.  2. — To  bisect  an  arc  of  a  circle  A  B. 

From  a  point  A  as  center  and  with  any  radius  greater 
than  half  of  curve  A  B,  draw  arcs  above  and  below. 
With  B  as  center  and  the  same  radius  cut  the  arcs  al- 
ready drawn  in  points  i  and  2.  Draw  a  straight  line 
through  points  i  and  2,  intersecting  the  curve  A  B  in  3, 
which  will  bisect  the  given  arc,  A  B. 


Prob.  3. — To  bisect  a  given  angle  ABC. 

With  B  as  center  and  any  radius  draw  an  arc  cutting 
the  lines  B  A  and  B  C  in  points  i  and  2.  With  points 
I  and  2  as  centers  and  any  radius  greater  than  half  of 
arc  1-2,  describe  arcs  intersecting  in  point  3.  Draw 
a  line  through  points  B  and  3  which  will  bisect  the 
given  angle,  A  B  C. 

Prob.  4 — To  trisect  a  given  right  angle  ABC. 
With  B  as  center  and  any  radius  draw  an  arc  cut- 
ting the  sides  of  the  right  angle  in  points  i  and  2. 
With  points  i  and  2  as  centers  and  the  same  radius 
draw  arcs  cutting  in  3  and  4.  Draw  lines  B  4  and  B  3 
which  trisect  the  given  right  angle  ABC. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


13 


Prcb.  5. — To  divide  a  given  straight  line  A  B  into  6  equal 
parts  (applicable  for  any  number X. 

Draw  the  line  A  C  at  any  angle  to  A  B ;  lay  off  on 
this  line  6  divisions,  being  equal  to  about  J  of  A  B 
Connect  points  6  and  B  by  a  straight  line.  From 
points  I,  2,  3,  4  and  5  draw  lines  parallel  to  6  B  cut- 
ting A  B  in  a,  b,  c,  d  and  e. 

Prob.  6, — To  divide  line  A  B  into  the  same  proportional  parts 
as  the  given  line  C  D. 

From  point  A  draw  a  line  at  any  angle  to  A  B.    Lay 

off  on  this  line  the  points  corresponding  to  points  on 

line  C  D.     Connect  points  4  and  B.     From  points  i, 

2  and  3  draw  lines  parallel  to  4  B,  cutting  the  line  A  B 

in  a,  b  and  c.  ^^ 

Prob.  7. — To  divide  a  circle  having  the  center  given,  into  6  equal  parts. 

Draw  the  diameter  1-5.  With  points  i  and  5  as  cen- 
ters and  radius  1-2  describe  arcs  cutting  the  circle  in 
points  3,  4,  6  and  7  which,  with  points  i  and  5,  are  the 
desired  divisions. 


Prob.  8. — From  point  A  above  the  givlen  line  B  C,  draw  a 
perpendicular  to  B  C. 

With  point  A  as  center  and  any  radius  cut  B  C  in 
I  and  2.  With  i  and  2  as  centers  and  any  radius  draw 
arcs  below.  From  A  draw  a  straight  line  to  point  3, 
which  is  the  desired  perpendicular. 

Prob.  9. — On  a  given  line  A  B  to  erect  a  perpendicular  at  point  A. 
With  point  A  as  center  and  any  radius  draw  an  arc 
cutting  A  B  in  I.  With  i  as  center  and  the  same  ra- 
dius lay  off  points  2  and  3.  With  points  2  and  3  as 
centers,  and  any  radius,  describe  arcs  above,  cutting  in 
4.  Connect  points  4  and  A,  so  erecting  the  desired 
perpendicular. 

Prob.  10. — To  draw  a  line  C  D  parallel  to  a  given  line  A  B  at  a 
given  distance,  as  E  F  above  it. 

Erect  perpendiculars  at  point  i  and  2  by  Prob.  9, 
lay  off  on  these  the  distance  E  F,  giving  points  3  and  4. 
Draw  line  C  D  through  3  and  4. 


14 


ARCHITF.CTURAL    DRAWING. 


Prob.  IJ. — Through  point  C  draw  the  line  D  E  parallel  to  A  B. 
With  point  C  as  center  and  any  radius,  describe  an 
arc  cutting  A  B  in  i.  With  i  as  center  and  same  radius 
describe  an  arc  which  will  cut  line  A  B  in  2.  With  i 
as  center  and  radius  C  2  describe  an  arc  cutting  1-2  in 
3.  Draw  a  straight  line  through  points  3  and  C,  which 
will  be  the  required  line  D  E. 

Prob.  J2. — To  construct  an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle  BAG. 
Draw  the  line  D  F.  With  A  as  center  and  any  ra- 
dius describe  an  arc  cutting  the  sides  of  the  angle  in 
points  I  and  2.  With  D  as  center  and  the  same  radius 
describe  an  arc  cutting  D  F  in  3.  With  radius  1-2,  and 
3  as  center,  describe  an  arc  cutting  3-4  in  4.  Draw  D 
E  through  D  4.    E  D  F  is  the  angle  required. 

Prob.  13. — Through  point  F  draw  a  straight  line  which  would  meet 
the  intersection  of  A  B  and  C  D  if  continued* 

Draw  F  i  and  F  2  at  any  angle.    Connect  1-2.  From 

point  3  anywhere  on  A  B  make  3-4  parallel  to  1-2,  3 

E  parallel  to  1  F,  and  4  E  parallel  to  2  F.     Pass  a 

straight  line  through  points  F  and  E,  which  will  be  the 

desired  line. 


Prob.  J4. — Find  the  mean  proportion  between  the  two  lines 
A  B  and  C  D. 

Lay  off  on  E  F,  1-2  equal  to  A  B  and  2-3  equal  to  C 
D.  Bisect  1-3  in  4.  With  4  as  center  and  radius  4-1 
describe  a  semicircle.  From  2  erect  a  perpendicular 
(Prob.  9)  to  E  F,  cutting  semicircle  in  5.  2-5  will  be 
the  desired  mean. 

Prob.  J5. — On  the  given  line  A  B  to  construct  a  square. 

Draw  B  i  perpendicular  to  A  B  (Prob.  9)  and  equal 
to  A  B.  With  points  A  and  i  as  centers  and  A  B  as 
radius  describe  arcs  cutting  in  2.    Draw  A-2  and  2-1. 

Prob.  J6. — On  a  given  line  A  B  to  construct  an  equilateral  triangle. 
With  A  and  B  as  centers,  and  A  B  as  radius  describe 
arcs  cutting  in  i.    Draw  A  i  and  B  i. 

Prob.  17,— Having  given  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle,  as  A  B,  C  D 
and  E  F,  to  construct  the  figure. 

With  point  B  as  center  and  the  radius  C  D  describe 
an  arc.  With  point  A  as  center  and  E  F  as  radius  de- 
scribe an  arc  cutting  the  first  in  i.  Draw  A  i  and 
B  I. 


Plate    1. 


PROB.I. 

PROB,  a. 

PROD. 3. 

')jC 

^t 

1/ 

/ 

A 

/ 

3| 

A^ 1 

-^B 

.^ 

^ 

^"^5 

4 

1 

^Y 

, 

Z 

PROB.  A 

PROB.  5. 

PROB 

6. 

/ 

B 

yf 
/  / 
/  / 

/  / 

1  / 
1  /  ^^ 

/ 

y           \ 

''              \ 

1 

,y\      \      \ 

a: 

\ 

\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

/       \ 

/            \ 

o/- ^ 

4 

A' 

/        \               ^^ 
\                  ^ 

S 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 
\         > 
\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 
\ 

b 

c 

2 

"abed 

e 

c 

1 

t 

3     4° 

PROB.   7 

PROB.   a. 

PR0?3. 

a. 

l^ 

< ~">^6 

A 

>^4 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

2'     C 

'             A 

N 
\ 
\ 
\ 

•       \ 

\ 

1 

^---         --^7 

) 

\ 

i 
— _^ ' 

,,'' 

y 

5) 

^ 

\ 

i6 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Prob.  J8.— On  a  given  base  A  B  to  construct  a  regular  hexagon. 

With  A  and  B  as  centers  and  A  B  as  radius  describe 
arcs  cutting-  in  1.  With  i  as  center  and  the  same  ra- 
dius describe  a  circle.  A  B  is  equal  to  I  of  its  cir- 
cumference. Step  off  points  2,  3,  4,  and  5  and  draw 
B-2,  2-3,  3-4,  4-5  and  5-A. 

Prqb.  J9.— Within  a  given  square,  A  BC  D,  to  inscribe  an  octagon. 

Draw  the  diagonals  A  C  and  B  D,  intersecting  in  i. 
With  A,  B,  C,  and  D  as  centers  and  radius  A  i  describe 
arcs  2-3,  4-5,  6-7  and  8-9;  draw  3-6,  5-8,  7-2  and  9-4. 

Prob.  20. — On  a  given  line  A  B  to  construct  a  pentagon. 
With  A  and  B  as  centers,  and  radius  A  B  describe 
arcs  cutting  in  i  and  2.  Connect  i  and  2.  With  i  as 
center  and  the  same  radius  describe  an  arc  cutting  at  3, 
4  and  5.  Pass  a  line  through  3-4  to  6,  and  one 
through  5-4  to  7.  With  7  and  6  as  centers  and  radius 
A  B  describe  arcs  intersecting  in  8.  Draw  A  7, 
7-8,  8-6  and  6  B. 

Prob.  21.— On  a  given  base  A  B  to  construct  an  octagon. 
Erect  perpendiculars  at  A  and  B.     Bisect  the  ex- 
terior angles  and  set  ofif  A  i  and  B  2  equal  to  A  B. 
Connect   1-2,  cutting  the   perpendiculars  in  3  and  4.. 


Make  3-5  and  4-6,  equal  to  3-4.  Extend" line  throu^  h 
5-6  indefinitely.  Make  5-7,  6-8,  5-9  and  6-10  equal  to 
3  A.    Draw  A  i,  1-7,  7-9,  9-10,  10-8,  8-2  and  2  B. 

Prob.  22.— Within  a  given  equilateral  triangle  A  B  C  to 
inscribe  a  circle. 

Bisect  the  angles  of  the  triangle  by  Prob.  3.  The  bi- 
sectors will  intersect  in  i.  The  perpendicular  distance 
from  I  to  any  side  of  the  triangle  will  be  the  radius  of 
the  desired  circle.  Note,  this  problem  is  true  in  any 
form  of  triangle. 

Prob.  23.— Within  a  square  A  BCD  to  inscribe   four  semicircles, 

each  touching  one  side  of  the  square  and  their  diameters 

forming  a  square. 

Draw  diagonals  A  C  and  D  B,  intersecting  in  i. 
Draw  diameters  passing  through  i.  Draw  2-3,  3-4, 
4-5  and  5-2.  Draw  6-7,  7-8,  8-9  and  9-6,  which  give  us 
points  II,  12,  13  and  14,  the  centers  of  the  required 
semicircles. 

Prob.  24.— Within  a  given  equilateral  triangle  A  B  C  to  inscribe  three 

equal  circles,  each  touching  two  sides  of  the  triangle  and 

two  other  circles. 

Bisect  the  angles  of  the  triangle,  letting  the  bisectors 
cut  the  sides  of  the  triangle  in  i,  2,  and  3.    With  cen- 


Plate    2 


PHOH    10 


I 


-li ^- 


I 


FHOH.    II. 


"7X 


A ^ 


I 


fnOB.    12.. 


PROB.   13. 


PnOB.    14. 


PHOB,    IS, 


PROB.    16. 


\ 


\ 


1  ^'-    \ 

V"    ~ 


B 


ts 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


ters  I,  2  and  3  and  radius  t-2  dcscril)e  arcs  cutting  bi- 
sectors in  4,  5  and  6,  the  centers  of  tlic  required  circles. 
A  perpendicular  (Prob.  8)  from  the  center  of  any 
circle  to  the  side  of  the  triano;le  will  determine  the  ra- 
dius of  the  circle,  and  also  the  point  of  tangency. 

Prob.  25. — Within  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  three  semicircles,  each 

touching  the  circumscribing  circle  and  their  diameters 

forming  a  regular  triangle. 

Draw  2  diameters,  1-2  and  3-4  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  intersecting  in  5.  Divide  the  circle  into 
twice  as  many  parts  as  there  are  semicircles  to  be  in- 
scribed, beginning  at  i.  Draw  diameters  6-7  and  8-9. 
Connect  2-3,  cutting  diameter  8-9  in  10,  which  locates 
one  point  of  the  required  triangle.  With  5  as  center 
and  radius  5-10  set  ofif  11  and  12,  which  when  con- 
nected form  the  triangle.  Draw  lo-ii,  11-12  and 
12-10,  giving  points  13,  14  and  15,  the  centers  of  the  re- 
quired semicircles. 

Prob  26.— Within  a  given  square  A  B  C  D  to  inscribe  four  equal 
circles,  each  tangent  to  two  otliers  and  two  sides  of  a  square. 

Draw  the  diagonals  and  thediameters  intersectingin 
1  and  giving  points  2,  3,  4  and  5.  Connect  points  2-3, 
3-4,  4-5  and  5-2  intersecting  diagonals  in  6,  7,  8  and  9, 
which  will  be  the  centers  of  the  required  circles 


Prcb.  27. — Within  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  any  number  of  equal 
circles  which  shall  be  tangent  to  each  other  and  to  the  cir- 
cumscribing circle.    In  tliis  problem,  five. 

Divide  the  circumference  of  the  circle  into  twice  as 
many  equal  parts  as  there  are  to  be  circles  inscribed: 
Produce  the  diameters  on  either  side  of  2-7  until  they 
meet  a  perpendicular  erected  to  2-7  at  2.  Bisect  angles 
12  and  13  and  let  bisectors  cut  diameter  2-7  in  14. 
With  I  as  center  and  radius  1-14  draw  a  circle  cutting 
diameters  in  15,  16,  17  and  18,  the  centers  of  the  re- 
quired circles. 

Prob.  28. — To  draw  a  line  tangent  to  a  given  circle  through 
a  given  point  A. 

Pass  a  line  through  center  i  and  point  A  indefinitely. 
With  point  A  as  center  and  any  radius  cut  this  line  in 
points  2  and  3.  With  2  and  3  as  centers  and  any  ra- 
dius describe  arcs  cutting  in  4  and  5.  Connect  4  and 
S,  which  will  be  the  desired  line. 

Prob.  29. — To  draw  a  line  tangent  to  a  given  point  A  in  a  circle 
when  the  center  is  not  accessible. 

Draw  any  chord  A  i.  Bisect  the  chord  and  arc 
(Probs.  I  and  2)  in  2  and  3.  With  A  as  center,  and  A  3 
as  a  radius  draw  an  arc  4-5 ;  with  3  as  center  and  3-5  as 
a  radius  draw  an  arc  cutting  4-5  in  4.  Draw  line 
through  A  4  tangent  to  the  circle. 


Plate  3. 


PROB.    ID 

7  8 


1/    — -> 


X 


VWQXS.^ZQ. 


^     I    /  \* 


+. 


T'HOH.    21. 

?, iO 

IN 
i 

T 

I 
I 
I 


i 


PROB.    23. 


3 

c 

V              ^/    1  ^^. 

\   f /     \     -X   y" 

7, "       1        la 

/^^ 

N              IS 

\^^s. 

\  11/ 

12--*-   14 

/  1^ 

/ 

4 

v^ 

.^-^  rt    V, 

x/ 

6\         1          -79 

/'    V^  1  /J    \.. 

5 

b 

PROB.   23. 


PROB.  1 26. 


12  i^"°L\'r-  .5 


20 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Profa.  30. — Draw  a  circle  tangent  to  a  given  point  C  in  line  A  B  and 
through  the  fixed  point  D  without  the  line. 

At  point  C  erect  a  perpendicular  (I'rob.  9).  Connect 

C  D  and  draw  a  perpendicular  to  its  center  (Prob.  i) 

intersecting  the  first  perpendicular  in  i,  which  is  the 

center  of  the  required  circle. 

Prob.  3J. — Draw  a  circle  tangent  to  a  given  circle  A,  also  to  a  given 
line  B  C  at  given  point  D  in  the  line. 

Pass  a  line  through  U  perpendicular  to  B  C.  Lay  off 

D  I  the  length  of  the  radius  of  circle  A  and  draw  A  i . 

Draw  perpendicular  to  A  i  (Prob.  i)  intersecting  the 

line  I  D  in  2,  which  is  the  center  of  the  required  circle. 

3  and  1)  are  the  points  of  tangency. 

Prob.  32. — At  a  given  point  E  in  line  D  B  draw  tw^o  arcs  of  circles 
tangent  at  this  point  and  to  the  two  lines  A  B  and  C  D. 

Make  B  i  equal  to  B  E.  Make  D  2  equal  to  D  E. 
Draw  E  3  perpendicular  to  D  B.  1-4  perpendicular  to 
A  B  and  2-3  perpendicular  to  C  D.  Points  3  and  4  are 
the  centers  of  the  required  arcs. 

Prob.  33. — Having  given  parallel  lines  A  B  and  C  D,  to  connect  by 

tw^o  arcs  of  circles  which  shall  be  tangent  at  points  B  and  C  and 

pass  through  point  E  which  is  anyivhere  on  line  BC. 

At  B  and  C  erect  perpendiculars.  Bisect  B  E  and  E 
C,  intersecting  the  perpendiculars  in  i  and  2.  the  cen- 
ters  of  the  required  arcs.  y*^^^^  '-'^"^SH, 

'  ^~  OF  the'*' 

UNIVERSITY 


Prob.  34. — To  draw  an  ellipse  by  means  of  a  trammel,  having 
the  axes  given. 

The  semi-diameters  of  the  ellipse  are  represented  by 
A  B  and  A  C.  Lay  off  on  the  straight  edge  of  a  piece 
of  paper  1-2  equal  to  A  B  also  3-2  equal  to  A  C.  Keep- 
ing point  I  on  the  short  diameter  and  point  3  on  the 
long,  mark  off  as  many  points  at  2  as  desired  to  form 
the  curve  of  an  ellipse. 

Prob  35. — To  draw^  a  line  tangent  to  an  ellipse  at  any  given  point 
as  E,  in  the  curve. 

With  point  C  as  center  and  A  i  as  radius  describe  an 
arc  cutting  diameter  A  B  in  F  and  F'  which  points  are 
called  foci.  Extend  a  line  from  F'  through  E  indefi- 
nitely. Make  E  2  equal  to  E  F.  Bisect  the  angle 
F  E  2,  giving  the  desired  tangent. 

Prob.  36. — To  draw  a  line  tangent  to  an  ellipse,  passing  tlirough  a 
given  point  E  without  it. 

Find  the  foci  as  in  Prob.  35.  With  point  E  as  center 
and  radius  E  F  describe  an  arc.  With  F'  as  center  and 
A  B  as  radius  describe  arc  cutting  the  first  arc  in  points 
I  and  2.  Connect  F'  i  and  F'  2,  cutting  the  ellipse  in 
points  3  and  4.  Draw  lines  from  E  through  3  and  4, 
which  will  be  tangent  at  3  and  4. 


Plate    4- 


pnou  .23. 


PROH.  29. 


PROB.  30. 

I-" 


,^\ 


PROB.  31 


PROB.  32. 
2  _D 


PROR  33. 


PROB.    3G. 


f.*-        OK   TBK 

UNIVERSITY 
CHAPTER  III. 

SIMPLE  PROJECTION,  INTRODUCING  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

WORKING  DRAWINGS. 


The  working  drawings  of  any  object  a're  such  draw- 
ings, accompanied  by  the  proper  measurements,  as  will 
tell  all  the  facts  concerning  that  object.  Such  drawings 
if  sent  to  a  mechanic  would  be  sufficient  to  enable  liim 
to  perform  the  desired  piece  of  work  without  further 
explanation.  The  number  of  views  required  depends 
entirely  upon  the  character  of  the  subject  to  be  drawn  ; 
for  instance,  in  Plate  5,  Fig.  i,  two  views  are  sufficient 
to  tell  all  that  concerns  the  cube,  whereas  for  a  more 
complicated  object  three  or  even  more  views  may  be 
necessary  to  tell  all  the  facts. 

Plate  5. — To  draw  the  front  and  top  views  of  the 
cube  in  three  positions. 

Fig.  I  represents  the  cube  so  placed  in  the  top 
view  that  two  edges  are  parallel  to  an  imaginary  hori- 
zontal line.  In  drawing  the  front  view  we  suppose  the 
cube  to  be  resting  upon  a  horizontal  plane  upon  one  of 


its  faces,  and  so  placed  as  to  appear  as  a  square  if 
seen  directly  in  front.  In  the  top  view  we  are  sup- 
posed to  be  looking  down  upon  the  cube,  its  position 
being  unchanged.  As  noted  before,  the  cube  will  be 
seen  as  a  square  in  both  the  front  and  top  views  and 
these  should  appear  directly  above  one  another.  The 
space  between  the  two  views  is  immaterial,  but  should 
be  such  as  to  appear  well  on  the  sheet.  The  horizon- 
tal lines  should  be  drawn  with  a  T-square,  having  its 
head  against  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  board,  whereas 
the  vertical  lines  should  be  drawn  with  a  triangle  rest- 
ing on  the  edge  of  the  T-square  blade.  Only  three 
measurements  are  necessary.  They  should  be  carefully 
placed  as  indicated  in  the  drawings,  the  arrow  heads 
just  touching  the  extension  lines  from  those  that  they 
measure,  not  over-running  or' falling  short. 


Plate    5. 


FIG.    I. 


TOP     VIEW 


<M 


FRONT   VIEW 


FRONT    VIEW 


FRONT   VIEW 


24 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Fig.  2  represents  the  cube  turned  in  the  top  view 
so  that  its  edges  make  angles  of  45°  with  an  imaginary 
horizontal  line. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  cube  turned  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, but  at  angles  of  30°  and  60°  with  a  horizontal  line. 
In  both  of  these  figures  the  top  views  should  be  drawn 
first.  From  them  project  down  and  construct  the  front 
views  directly  opposite  the  front  view  in  Fig.  i.  These 
problems  should  be  lined-in  with  a  medium  grade  pen 
oil,  making  the  result  lines,  or  in  other  words,  the  out- 
lines of  the  cube,  strong  and  black,  uniform  in  thick- 
ness throusrhout  the  drawing,  and  much  resembling  an 
inked  line.  Extension  lines  should  be  at  right  angles  to 
the  lines  to  be  measured,  and  measurement  lines  should 
be  left  light.  Care  should  be  given  to  printing  and 
figuring,  as  the  appearance  of  the  sheet  depends  much 
upon  this  feature  of  the  work.  Figs.  2  and  3  are  not 
necessary  as  working  drawings  of  a  cube,  but  are 
given  as  simple  exercises  for  the  use  of  the  T-square 
and  triangles,  and  as  the  method  of  representing  fore- 

■  or  THE      ^  >-  \. 

UNIVERSITY    I 


shortened  surfaces  and  of  placing  measurements  upon 
inclined  lines. 

Plate  6. — Fig.  i  represents  the  front,  top  and  side 
views  of  an  equilateral  triangular  prism  placed  so  that 
two  of  its  faces  are  equally  visible  in  the  front  view.  In 
this  drawing  the  top  view  should  first  be  made,  from 
which  the  front  and  side  views  are  projected.  The 
student  should  take  notice  that  the  width  of  the  side 
view  is  equal  to  the  altitude  of  the  triangle  formed  by 
the  top  view  and  not  to  one  of  its  sides,  as  many  begin- 
ners are  apt  to  suppose. 

Fig.  2.  — Draw  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  reg- 
ular hexagonal  prism  according  to  the  measurements 
given.  In  this,  as  in  Fig.  i,  the  top  view  should  be 
drawn  first  and  the  front  view  projected  directly  below. 
Both  the  triangle  in  Fig.  i  and  the  hexagon  in  Fig. 
2  may  be  constructed  by  the  use  of  the  30°  and  60°  tri- 
angle, or  more  accurately,  by  the  use  of  the  compasses 
as  given  in  geometric  problems  16  and  18. 


Plate  6 


FIC.    I. 


riG.  I. 


t.- 


TRIANGULAR 

AND 

HEXAGONAL     PRISMS 


ITOP  VIE\A/1 


TRONT    VIEW 


SIDt      VIEW 


FRONT   View 


26 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate   7. —  The  drawing  to  the  left  represents  the  views  and  a  vertical  section  ;  this  section  is  supposed  to 

front  and  top  views  of  a  square  pyramid.     Note  that  be  cut  through  line  A  and  the  front  half  removed.    The 


the  height  of  the  pyramid  is  given  on  a  measurement 
line  parallel  to  the  axis  and  not  parallel  to  the  slant 
line  of  the  pyramid. 

The  chimney  model  is  represented  by  front  and  top 

OF  TBB  '      ^ 

UNIVERSITT 


surface  cut  by  this  vertical  plane  is  section  lined  at  45° 
Different  pieces  of  material  adjoining  one  another  are 
section  lined  in  different  directions,  as  shown  in  this 
problem. 


Plate   7. 


FRONT     VIEW 


SQUARE     PYRAMID 

AND 

CHIMNEY     MODEL 


^ 


Is: 


I  I*— 
I  I 
I  I 

I  I 


-4  5'tl'^ 

—2" T^ 


-ll- 


mi. 


"^' 


TOP    VIEW  I  I 

I  I 

I  I 

I  I 


^__. 


SECTION 


FRONT     VIEW 


28 


ARCFrTTECTURAI,    DRAWING. 


Plate  8. —  The  dravvinnf  to  the  left  represents  the 
front  and  top  views  of  a  paneled  prism  turned  at  an 
angle  of  30°  and  60°.  The  top  view  should  be  drawn 
first ;  the  main  lines  of  the  prism  and  the  vertical  lines 
of  the  panel  may  then  be  projected  down  to  their  re- 
spective places  as  indicated  by  the  connecting  lines. 
In  the  drawing  to  the  right  we  have  the  front  and  top 
views,    and   a   vertical    section    of   a   hollow    flanged 


cylinder.  The  top  view  should  be  drawn  first,  as  in 
nearly  all  cases  when  the  object  is  based  upon  the  cyl- 
inder. As  but  one  piece  of  material  is  shown  in  the 
section,  all  the  section  lines  run  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. In  mechanical  drawing,  the  front  view  of  ob- 
jects based  upon  the  cylinder  are  frequently  represent- 
ed half  in  elevation  and  half  in  section,  instead  of  mak- 
ing a  separate  drawing  of  the  section,  as  in  this  case. 


Plate  8. 


SQUARE      PRISM 

ANO 

HOLLOW      CYLINDER 


I 


I 

I 


m 


FRONT     VIEW 


StCTION 


TRONT     VIEW 


30 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  9. — Draw  the  front,  top,  right,  and  left  side 
views  of  a  cylinder  and  a  cube,  as  placed  in  the  draw- 
ing. Locate  the  top  view,  from  which  project  points 
down,  so  placing  the  objects  in  the  front  view.     The 


spaces  A',  B',  C,  D',  and  E'  of  the  right  side  view  are 
equal  to  spaces  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  of  the  top  view. 
The  vertical  heights  in  the  side  views  are  equal  to 
those  of  the  front. 


Plate  9 


COMBINATION     o-" 

CYLINDER     *""    CUBE 


"-I* 
n 


-aI 


^<—  B-> 


Ct 


LEFT  SIDE  VIEW. 


TRONT     VIEW. 


RI&MT  SIDE  VIEW. 


32 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING 


Plate  JO. —  Fig.  I  represents  the  front  and  top  views 
of  a  hexagonal  prism.  In  the  front  view  this  object 
shows  two  of  its  faces  equally  and  is  so  inclined  that 
its  base  makes  an  angle  of  30°  with  the  horizontal 
plane.  First,  draw  the  front  view,  making  the  short 
lines  at  30°  and  the  long  lines  at  60°,  and  the  distances 
A  and  B  in  the  front  view  equivalent  to  A'  and  B'  in 
the  diagram  Fig.  2 ;  this  diagram  being  a  regular  hex- 
agon. In  the  top  view  the  distances  C,  D  and  E  are 
equal  C,  D',  and  E'  in  the  diagram.  Having  obtained 
the  position  of  these  horizontal  lines,  project  points 
in  the  front  view  to  corresponding  lines  in  the  top 


view,  giving  points  to  be  connected  by  straight  lines. 
Fig.  3. — The  top  view  as  shown  in  this  figure  is  the 
same  as  in  F"ig.  i,  but  turned  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The 
front  view  of  this  ol)ject  in  the  turned  position  must 
be  quite  dififercnt  in  appearance  from  that  in  Fig.  i ; 
but  all  its  points  will  appear  to  be  at  the  same  height 
as  before  it  was  revolved.  This  being  so,  we  have 
simply  to  project  corresponding  points  in  the  top  and 
front  views  until  the  lines  intersect,  giving  the  several 
points,  which  are  connected  by  straight  lines.  For 
instance,  point  F  may  be  traced  from  one  view  to  an- 
other, as  shown  in  the  drawing. 


■^  OF  THK        ^y-^ 

UNIVERSITY 


Plate   10 


FIG.     I. 


HEXAGONAL     PRISM 

FIG.     Z. 


FIG.     3. 


FRONT     VIEW 


FRONT      VIEW 


34 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  I  J. —  Draw  tlie  front  and  top  views  of  a  square 
prism  resting  across  a  triangular  prism  according  to 
given  measurements.  Draw  the  front  view  as  shown, 
from  which  project  the  ]5oints  of  the  triangular  prism 
locating  the  top  view.      The  points  in  the  square  prism 


are  projected  in  a  similar  manner.  Being  a  square 
prism  the  space  between  the  two  long  edges  in  the  top 
view  equals  one  side  of  the  prism.  Transfer  the  top 
view  to  the  right  portion  of  the  sheet  at  angles  of  30° 
and  60°.  F"in(l  the  front  view  by  projection,  as  in  plate  10. 


Plate    11. 


SQUARE 

AND 

TRIANGULAR      PRISMS 


2" -»^ 

FRONT    VIEW 


FRONT      VIEW 


36 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  J 2, —  In  this  plate  we  have  the  hexagonal 
prism  resting  across  the  square  prism,  their  projec- 
tions to  be  carried  out  precisely  as  in  the  plate  preced- 
ing To  find  the  projection  of  the  hexagonal  prism  as 


shown  on  the  left  portion  of  the  plate,  proceed  as  in 
Plate  1 1 .  Measurements  should  only  be  placed  upon 
lines  that  are  not  foreshortened. 


OF  TVV.  '      \ 

UNIVERS]' 

■  CALIFOPt'- '^ 


Plate    12. 


HEXAGONAL 

ANO 

SQUARE      PRISMS 


FRONT    VCW 


FRONT    VIEW 


33 


ARCtllTIXTURAl,    DRAWING. 


Plate  13. —  This  plate  fjivcs  an  excellent  problem  in 
projection ;  the  student  being  obliged  to  follow  each 
point  carefully  through  the  several  views  in  order  to 
produce  correct  results.  Draw  first  the  front  and  then 
the  top  view.    Having  completed  the  top  view,  transfer 


it  to  the  right  portion  of  the  sheet,  turning  it  at  angles 
of  30°  and  60°.  The  fourth  view  is  found  by  project- 
ing horizontally  from  the  front  view  and  vertically  from 
the  top  view  as  in  the  foregoing  drawings.  Great 
accuracy  is  required  to  make  this  last  result  satisfac- 
tory. 


Plate   13. 


DOUBLE     CROSS 


TOP     VIEW 


FRONT     VIEW 


FRONT     VIEW 


CHAPTER  IV. 

INTERSECTION  OF  SOLIDS  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF 

SURFACES. 


The  surface  of  an  object  is  developed  by  laying  out 
its  several  faces  accurately  upon  a  plane.  If  this  draw- 
ing be  cut  out  and  folded  where  its  several  faces  inter- 
sect it  will  produce  an  object  of  the  same  shape  and 
equal  in  size  to  the  original.  Any  object  based  upon 
the  cube,  cylinder  or  Cone  may  be  developed,  but  those 
based  upon  the  sphere  are  non-developable. 


Plate  14.  —  Draw  the  front  and  top  views  of  the 
cube.  Its  pattern  is  found  by  unfolding  or  laying  out 
its  several  faces.  As  the  cube  has  six  faces,  we  have 
simply  to  lay  out  six  squares  in  some  convenient  form. 
Usually  it  is  desirable  to  tint  the  pattern  with  some 
light  wash  of  color.  It  gives  the  student  practice  in  lay- 
ing on  flat  washes  and  the  efifect  of  the  plate  is  much 
roved. 


Plate  14. 


TOP     VIEW 


CUBE 

PATTERN 

FRONT     VIEW 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  J5. —  The  pattern  of  the  cyHnder  is  ob- 
tained by  dividing  the  circumference  into  a  cer- 
tain number  of  equal  parts,  generally  12  or  24.  The 
greater  the  number  the  more  accurate  will  be  the  re- 
sult, which  is  not  absolutely  correct,  though  near 
enough  for  all  practical  purposes,  for  we  are  measuring 
the  chord  each  time  instead  of  the  arc.    Having  divided 


the  circumference  say  into  24  elements,  take  .^^  and 
step  off  24  divisions  on  a  horizontal  line.  The  entire 
space  upon  this  line  will  be  equal  to  the  circumference 
of  the  cylinder,  and  upon  this  line  complete  the  rect- 
angular figure,  which  will  be  equal  in  height  to  the 
length  of  the  cylinder.  The  circles  represented  in  the 
pattern  are  equal  to  the  bases  of  the  cylinder. 


Plate  15. 


CYLINDER 


PATTERN 


FRONT     VIEW 


44 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  J6. — The  base  of  the  cone  is  divided  into  a  cer- 
tain number  of  elements  as  was  that  of  the  cyUnder. 
But  instead  of  being  rolled  out  upon  a  horizontal  line 
its  elements  will  form  an  arc  of  a  circle,  the  radius  of 


which  will  be  equal  to  the  slant  height  of  the  cone. 
Locate  a  circle  equal  to  the  base  of  the  cone  at  any 
point  tangent  to  the  great  arc. 


^^        or  THu        f^ 

UNIVERSITY  , 


Plate   16. 


FRONT      VIEW 


CONE 


PATTERN 


46 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  17. —  The  pattern  of  a  square  pyramid  is  made 
up  of  four  triangles,  equal  in  size  to  the  faces  of  the 
pyramid,  and  a  square  equal  to  its  base.  The  arc  cut- 
ting the  boundary  lines  of  these  triangles  has  for  its 
radius  the  true  length  of  one  of  the  edges  of  the  pyra- 
mid. This  is  found  by  revolving  the  line  A  B  until  it 
becomes  parallel  to  the  plane  upon  which  the  front 


view  is  supposed  to  be  made.  In  the  top  view  A'  C 
represents  the  revolved  position  of  A'  B',  and  if  pro- 
jected down  to  the  front  view  will  give  us  A  C,  which 
is  the  true  length  of  A  B.  Notice  that  only  such  lines 
as  are  parallel  to  the  plane  upon  which  the  view  is 
made,  can  be  measured  their  actual  length. 


Plate   17. 


SQUARE      PYRAMID 


B      c 


TRONT     VIEIW 


PATTERN 


48 


ARCFdTECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  J 8. —  Right  elbow  joint.  In  thi.s  plate  we 
have  the  intersection  of  two  cylinders,  each  being  cut 
off  at  an  angle  of  45°,  formng  a  mitre  joint.  Each 
section  should  be  developed  separately.  First  develop 
or  roll  out  the  lower  member  as  in  the  previous  sheet, 


then  measure  the  length  of  the  elements  in  their  proper 
sequence ;  and  through  the  points  obtained,  pass  a 
smooth  line  by  the  use  of  the  French  or  irregular  curve. 
The  upper  member  is  developed  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  lower. 


Plate   18. 


RIGHT    ELBOW 


TRONT     VIEW 


PATTERN 


50 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  (9. —  To  find  the  intersection  of  the  two  pipes 
in  the  front  view,  divide  angle  ABC  into  six  equal 
parts.  Three  of  these  divisions  will  form  lines  of  inter- 
section, two  of  which  are  seen  as  ellipses  in  the  top 
view  and  may  be  found  by  projecting  the  several 
points  in  the  front  view   caused  by  the  intersection  of 


the  elements,  to  the  corresponding  elements  in  the  top 
view.  Members  H  and  I  are  developed  as  in  the  fore- 
going sheet.  Sections  J  and  K  should  be  laid  out  on 
center  lines  D'  E'  and  F'  G'  which  lines  correspond 
to  D  E  and  F  G ;  the  elements  being  measured  above 
and  below  the  lines  to  correspond  with  each  section. 


Plate   19 


.-^   y*-w  '^    y  \ 

FOUR    PART    ELBOW 

/ 

X      ^v  \  /    \ 

/ 

/        w    \ 

(     1          M\   » 

1 

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1 

Pt    ' 

V     \         Afi  t 

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r , 

V    ^\,^\  /■ 

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— 

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■ ! !     ;  c 

•3V' 1— 

r—r— 

'^mn 

fV    i 

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-f^i 

1 

-J- — '■^ 

'i"\  ' 

^■"Z^^ 

"^ 

r^>^^ 

i'*N        \       1 

1 — r                1 

I^l>^\    ' 

0' 

p        1 

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-~» 

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■^ 

— 

- 

^ 

*^*'  \^\= 

^■"^ —                   ' 

^y 

■A 

^ 

^ 1" ' 

B 

3 

i5'     > 

'4      * 

1 

« k 

FRONT 

VIEW 

PATTERN 

52 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  20. —  The  intersection  of  the  horizontal  pipe 
with  the  vertical  is  found  by  dividing  the  horizontal  cyl- 
inder into  24  elements.  Where  the  corresponding  ele- 
ments in  the  top  view  pierce  the  vertical  cylinder, 
points  are  obtained  which,  projected  down  to  the  front 
view,  will  determine  points  through  which  to  pass  the 
curve  caused  by  the  intersection.  The  intersection  of 
the  oblique  cylinder  with  the  vertical  is  carried,  out  in  a 
similarmanner.     The  three  cylindrical  pipes  should  be 

V       OF  IBE  T. 


developed  first  as  right  cylinders  and  their  elements 
measured,  giving  points  through  which  to  pass  curves, 
as  in  the  preceding  plate.  The  opening  for  the  hori- 
zontal pipe  in  the  pattern  of  the  vertical  pipe  may  be 
found  by  laying  ofif  the  elements  1',  2',  3',  4',  and  5' 
which  correspond  to  1,2,  3,  4,  and  5  in  the  top  view. 
On  these  elements  lay  ofT  their  corresponding  lengths 
as  found  in  the  front  view.  The  opening  in  the  center 
of  the  pattern  is  found  in  a  similar  manner. 


*Pa 


CALIFO 


PV*^ 


INTERSECTION      OF 

THREE     PIPES 


rRONT     VIEW 


Plate  20 


PATTERNS 


54 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  21.—  In  this  problem  we  have  a  hexagonal  pyr- 
amid piercing  a  square  prism ;  the  hexagonal  pyramid 
is  drawn  so  it  shows  three  faces  in  the  front  view,  and 
tile  square  prism  is  turned  to  present  two  equal  faces. 

The  intersection  of  the  hexagonal  pyramid  and  the 
square  prism  in  the  front  view  may  be  determined  by 


projecting  points  from  the  corresponding  intersection 
in  the  top  view.  In  finding  the  patterns,  lay  out  both 
the  square  prism  and  hexagonal  pyramid  as  though 
they  had  not  been  cut,  then  measure  the  various  lines 
as  in  the  preceding  problems. 


.      ,  -J   TUB 

UKIVERSITY^ 


Plate   21. 


56 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  22.' — To  find  the  intersection  of  a  square  pyra- 
mid and  a  cylinder,  the  square  pyramid  being  turned 
to  show  two  ecjiial  faces  in  the  front  and  top  views, 
and  the  axes  of  the  two  solids  intersecting'. 

Three  points,  as  may  he  seen,  are  determined  at 
once ;  but  points  2,  3',  4'  and  5'  and  other  correspond- 
ing points  are  found  by  dividing  the  faces  of  the  pyra- 
mid into  a  certain  number  of  elements.  Where  these 
elements  pierce  the  solid  in  the  top  view  in  2,  3,  4  and 


5  project  down  to  corresponding  elements  in  the  front 
view,  and  so  obtain  2',  3',  4'  and  5'.  The  pattern  of  the 
cylinder  is  found  as  in  the  ])revious  problems.  Points 
2"',  3'",  4'"  and  5'"  in  the  pattern  of  the  square 
pyramid  are  found  as  shown  in  point  5'",  in  which  the 
distance  from  9'  to  8',  and  9'  to  8"  is  equal  to  9-8. 
Connect  8'  and  8"  cutting  the  corresponding  element, 
which   gives  5'". 


T*  or  TBK  r 

UNIVERSITY  j 


Plate   22. 


FRONT     VIEW 


PATTERNS 


58 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  23. —  Tliis  problem  presents  the  intersection  of 
a  cone  and  a  iiexagonal  prism.  The  principles  differ 
little  from  those  of  the  preceding  plates.    The  student 


should  not  forget  that  the  elements  upon  the  cone 
should  be  measured  on  the  outline,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained. 


Plate  23. 


rrop  view 


TRONT      VIELW 


PATTE.RNS 


CHAPTER  V. 


PROJECTION  OF  SHADOWS. 


The  principal  object  of  working  out  the  shac^es  and 
shadows  upon  a  drawing  is  to  reveal  form  which  would 
otherwise  appear  flat.  By  the  cast  shadows  upon  the 
faqade  of  a  building  one  may  readily  determine  the 
sliapes  of  its  various  details,  making  the  drawing  far 
more  comprehensive. 

We  consider  the  rays  of  light  falling  upon  an  object 
as  direct,  indirect,  diffused,  or  artificial.  Direct  rays 
are  those  that  fall  directly  on  the  object.  Indirect  rays 
are  reflected  back  from  some  other  object.  Diffused 
light  is  that  reflected  from  innumerable  surfaces.  Ar- 
tificial light  is  sometimes  used  in  interior  perspective, 
but  never  in  projection  of  shadows. 

The  high  light  of  an  ol)ject  is  tliat  portion  which  re- 
ceives the  rays  direct.    Shade  on  an  object  is  due  to  the 


interception  of  the  sun's  rays  by  its  own  form.  It 
varies  in  intensity,  being  darker  at  the  dividing  lines 
of  light  and  shade,  since  the  side  directly  opposite  the 
light  receives  more  reflected  light.  Shadow  on  any 
surface  is  due  to  the  absolute  cutting  off  of  direct  rays 
by  some  object.  The  shape  of  the  shadow  will  be  de<er- 
mined  by  the  character  of  the  receiving  surface,  and  the 
form  of  the  object  casting  the  shadow.  Shadows  are 
never  black,  but  should  be  darker  than  the  shade;  the 
reason  being  that  the  shadow  does  not  receive  as  much 
reflected  light  as  the  shade.  Shadows  are  always  cast 
upon  surfaces  that  would  otherwise  be  in  the  direct 
light,  never  upon  a  surface  that  is  in  the  shade,  or  one 
that  is  already  in  shadow. 


62 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


When  two  surfaces  join,  one  being-  ligliter  than  the 
other,  the  contrast  at  the  point  of  intersection  is  ex- 
aggerated ;  that  is,  the  light  appears  by  contrast  lightei 
than  it  really  is,  while  the  dark  appears  darker.  In 
drawing  the  roof  of  a  building  against  the  sky  the  up- 
per portion  of  the  roof  is  made  darker  by  its  contrast 
with  the  bright  sky.  Windows  and  doors  are  usually 
drawn  darker  in  the  upper  portion,  as  the  lower 
is  supposed  to  receive  more  reflected  light.  If  there 
is  a  door  within  a  door  the  treatment  is  reversed ; 
that  is,  the  upper  part  is  made  lighter  than  the  lower, 
giving  contrast  and  transparency. 

Plate  24. — In  working  out  the  shades  and  shadows 
of  an  object  we  consider  the  rays  of  light  as  coming 
downward  parallel  to  a  line  drawn  through  the  di- 
agonal of  a  cube.  Fig.  i  shows  the  cube  and  the  diag- 
onal drawn  in  three  positions.  The  diagonal  appears 
to  make  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  horizontal  plane  in  the 
front  view,  and  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  vertical  plane 
in  both  the  top  and  side  views.  The  student  will  ob- 
serve that  the  rays  of  light  do  not  appear  at  their 
true  angle.  That  may  be  found,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  2, 
by  drawing  the  cube  in  a  position  which  will  place  the 
diagonal  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane-. 


^£ 


Another  method  of  finding  the  true  angle  of  the  sun's 
rays  with  the  horizontal  plane  is  given  in  Fig.  3,  in 
which  we  have  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  line  repre- 
senting a  ray  of  light.  Revolve  line  A'  B' until  it  is  par- 
allel to  the  vertical  plane.  Point  A  will  appear  in  the 
front  view  to  move  in  a  horizontal  line  and  will  be 
found  directly  under  point  A".  Connecting  A'"  with  B 
gives  the  true  angle  of  the  sun's  rays  with  the  horizon- 
tal plane. 

In  Fig.  4  we  have  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  verti- 
cal line  casting  a  vertical  line  of  shadow  upon  a  vertical 
plane.  If  a  line  is  parallel  to  the  plane  receiving  the 
shadow,  the  shadow  will  be  parallel  to  the  line  casting 
it  and  have  the  same  length.  To  obtain  the  position 
of  the  shadow,  draw  a  line  at  45°  from  point  A',  inter- 
secting the  vertical  plane  in  C.  Let  fall  a  vertical  line 
from  C  until  intersected  by  line  at  45°  from  A  and  B 
giving  line  D  E,  which  is  the  shadow  cast  by  line  A  B. 

Fig.  5. —  This  problem  is  similar  to  that  in  Fig.  4. 
It  is  given  to  show  that  a  side  view  may  be  used  instead 
of  the  top  view,  as  in  many  cases  will  be  found  more 
convenient.  The  student  will  see  that  the  results  are 
precisely  the  same. 


OF  THB 


UNIVERSITY 


Plate  24. 


no 


TOP     VltW 


no.  z 


\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 



\ 

\ 

\ 


\ 


\ 


f'lC.    4. 


TOP     VILrt 

" '  I 

\         I 


TRONT     View 


TRONT     VltW 


SIDt     View 


FRONT      View 


riG 

5 

A 

A 

\ 

''\, 

D^ 

c 

B\ 

e 

E 

c' 

TRONT    VIEW         SIDC    VIE.W 


64 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  25. —  In  Fig.  i  we  have  the  front  and  side 
views  of  a  square  plane  casting  a  shadow  upon  a  ver- 
tical surface  to  which  it  is  parallel.  A  line  parallel  to 
the  surface  receiving  the  shadow  will  always  cast  a  line 
of  shadow  parallel  to  itself,  therefore  the  outline  of  this 
sliadow  must  be  parallel  to  the  outlines  of  the  plane 
which  casts  it.  The  various  points  in  the  side  view 
of  the  square  plane  may  be  projected  at  45"  to  the  ver- 
tical plane  and  then  carried  over  to  obtain  correspond- 
ing points  on  lines  projected  downward  at  45°  in  the 
front  view. 

Fig.  2. — To  cast  a  shadow  of  a  vertical  plane  that 
is  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  upon  which  the 
shadow  is  to  be  cast.  As  the  two  vertical  lines  are 
parallel  with  the  vertical  plane  which  receives  the 
shadow,  they  must  produce  vertical  lines  of  shadow. 
A  horizontal  line  that  is  perpendicular  to  the  vertical 
plane  will  always  cast  a  line  of  shadow  at  45°,  no  mat- 
ter what  the  character  of  the  surface  may  be,  nor 
where  the  shadow  falls ;  therefore,  th^  two  horizontal 

r*  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


lines  which  are  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  will 
cast  shadows  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The  shadow  may  be 
completed  as  in  the  last  problem. 

Fig.  3. — To  draw  tlie  shadow  of  a  horizontal  plane 
that  is  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  upon  which 
the  shadow  is  to  be  cast.  Two  of  the  horizontal  lines 
are  parallel  with  the  vertical  plane  upon  wliich  the 
shadow  is  to  be  cast,  therefore  they  will  cast  horizontal 
lines  of  shadow.  Two  of  the  horizontal  lines  are  per- 
pendicvilar  to  the  vertical  plane  upon  which  the  shadow 
is  to  be  cast  and  their  lines  of  shadow  will  be  at  45° 

Fig.  4. —  To  find  the  shadow  cast  by  a  cube  upon 
the  vertical  plane.  This  problem  is  a  union  of  the 
last  three  figures ;  that  is,  if  all  the  jjoints  were  found 
the  shadow  would  be  divided  into  three  sections;  sec- 
tion A,  corresponding  to  the  shadow  in  Fig.  i,  section 
I'  to  that  in  Fig.  2,  section  C  to  that  in  I'ig.  3.  No 
new  principle  is  introduced ;  the  problem  is  simply 
made  a  little  more  difficult  by  uniting  the  several  sur- 
faces and  forming  a  cube. 


Plate  25. 


J™:.l.-_A 


PROJECTION     or    SHADOWS 


FRONT      VIEW 


SIDE     VIEW 


riG.  z. 


\ 


FRONT      VIEW 


SIDE     VIEW 


riG.  3. 


FRONT      VIEW 

FIG.  4. 


SIDE     VIEW 


\ 

■^^ 

\ 

\ 

^^^ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

••^ 

^^ 

\ 



FRONT      VIEW 


SIDE     VIEW 


66 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  26.  Fig.  i.  —  To  cast  the  shadow  of  an 
octagonal  plane  that  is  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane 
upon  which  the  shadow  is  to  be  cast.  As  all  of  the 
lines  of  this  figure  are  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane, 
their  lines  of  shadow  will  be  parallel  to  themselves  as 
worked  out  in  the  drawing. 

Fig.  2. — To  cast  the  shadow  of  a  vertical  octagonal 
plane  that  is  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  upon 
which  the  shadow  is  to  be  cast.  This  is  best  done  by 
finding  the  separate  points  and  connecting  them  as 
shown  in  the  drawing. 


Fig. 


To  cast  the  shadow  of  a  horizontal  oc- 


tagonal plane  upon  a  vertical  plane.     This  problem  is 
worked  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  4. — To  cast  a  shadow  of  a  circular  plane  that 
is  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  upon  which  the 
shadow  is  to  be  cast.  Circumscribe  the  circle  by  an 
octagon  and  find  the  shadow  of  the  octagon  as  in  Fig. 
3.  Having  found  its  outline,  draw  an  ellipse  which 
shall  be  tangent  to  the  various  lines  of  the  octagon  at 
their  centers. 


Plate  26 


riG.  I. 


PROJECTION     or    SHADOWS 


riG.  5. 


% 

W'k 

no.  I.. 


FIG.  4. 


6S 


ARCHFTECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  27.  Fig.  i. — To  cast  the  shadow  of  a  vertical 
cylinder  on  a  horizontal  plane.  The  top  surface  of  the 
cylinder  is  parallel  to  the  horizontal  plane,  therefore,  its 
shadow  will  be  parallel  to  itself  and  take  the  form  of  a 
circle.  Find  the  shadow  of  the  center  of  this  circular 
surface,  and  on  this  center  draw  a  circle  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  cylinder.  Draw  lines  at  angles  of  45° 
tangent  to  the  top  view,  which  will  meet  and  be  tan- 
gent to  the  circle  already  found.     Project  points  i  and 


2  downward  upon  the  front  view,  which  will  deter- 
mine the  dividing  lines  of  light  and  shade. 

Fig.  2. — To  cast  the  shadow  of  a  vertical  cone  upon 
a  horizontal  plane.  Find  the  shadow  of  the  apex,  and 
from  this  point  draw  lines  tangent  to  the  base  of  the 
cone.  Lines  drawn  from  the  points  of  tangency  to 
the  apex  in  both  the  top  and  front  views  will  be  the 
dividing  lines  of  light  and  shade. 


PROJECTION     or-    SHADOWS 


Plate  27. 


riG.  I 


riG.  I. 


TRCINT   VIEIW 


TRONIT    VIEW 


70 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  28.  Fig.  i. — We  have  given  two  vertical  cones, 
casting  a  shadow  upon  a  horizontal  plane.  These 
cones  are  joined  at  their  apexes  and  their  elements 
make  angles  of  45°  with  their  bases.  First  find  the 
shadow  of  the  base  of  the  inverted  cone  and  then  the 
shadow  of  the  point  of  intersection  of  their  apexes, 
which  will  be  point  i.  From  point  i  draw  lines  tan- 
gent to  the  base  of  the  cone  and  to  the  circular  shadow 
already  obtained.  It  will  be  seen  that  just  one-quarter 
of  the  inverted  cone  is  in  the  light  and  three-quarters 
are  in  the  shade,  while  in  the  upright  cone  it  is  the  re- 


verse,   three-quarters   in   light   and   one-quarter   in 
shade. 

Fig.  2. —  This  problem  differs  from  the  preceding 
one  in  that  the  elements  of  the  cones  make  angles  of 
35°  16'  (true  angles  of  ray  of  light),  with  their  bases 
instead  of  45°;  but  the  working  of  the  problem  is  pre- 
cisely the  same.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  ele- 
ments of  the  inverted  cone  are  wholly  in  the  shade, 
while  those  of  the  lower  cone  are  in  the  light;  this  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  elements  A-B  and  B-C  are 
parallel  with  the  rays  of  light. 


Plate  28. 


PROJECTION     <"■    SHADOWS 


riG.  I 


rRONT  view 


FRONT   VIEW 


72 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  29.  Fig.  i. — We  have  a  sphere  suspended, 
casting  a  shadow  partly  upon  a  vertical  plane  shown 
in  the  front  view,  and  partly  on  the  horizontal 
plane  shown  in  the  top  view.  It  is  evident  that  a 
portion  of  the  sphere  will  be  in  the  light  and  a  portion 
in  the  shade.  This  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  in 
both  views  will  appear  as  ellipses  equal  in  size.  The 
diagram  in  Fig.  2  is  given  to  show  the  method  of  find- 
ing this  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade.  First  draw 
the  diameters  1-2  and  3-4  at  45°,  1-2  being  the  long 
diameter  of  the  ellipse.  Point  S  is  the  lowest  point  in 
the  ellipse.  To  obtain  this  point,  first  draw  a  line 
tangent  to  the  contour  of  the  sphere  at  an  angle  of 
35°-i6',  which  line  is  the  true  angle  of  a  ray  of  light. 
This  line  becomes  tangent  at  point  6  and  intersects  the 
axis  in  7.     From  7  take^^gkiiine  at  45°,  intersecting 

UNIVERSITY 


a  horizontal  line  from  point  6  in  5,  which  revolves  the 
ray  of  light  back  to  its  position  as  the  diagonal  of  the 
cube.  Project  point  5  up  to  meet  the  diameter  3-4  in 
8.  Lay  off  9-10  equal  to  9-8.  With  8-10  as  the  short 
diameter  and  1-2  as  the  long,  construct  the  ellipse  by 
means  of  a  paper  trammel.  Ordinarily  this  diagram 
would  be  worked  directly  upon  the  problem.  The 
shadow  of  the  sphere  upon  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
planes  is  found  by  first  determining  the  shadow  of  the 
centers  C  and  C.  Through  these  centers  draw  the 
short  diameters  1-2  and  i'-2',  equal  in  length  to  the 
diameter  of  the  sphere.  1-2  and  i'-2'  are  bases  of 
equilateral  triangles  which  determine  the  lengths  of  the 
long  diameters.  Having  obtained  the  long  and  short 
diameters,  construct  the  ellipses  with  a  paper  trammel. 


74 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  30.  Fig.  I.  —  Cast  the  shadow  of  a  horizontal 
abutment  upon  a  flight  of  steps,  also  upon  a  vertical 
plane.  The  shadow  is  more  readily  obtained  by  the 
use  of  a  section,  or  side  view,  as  it  thus  becomes  a 
very  simple  matter  to  determine  where  the  lines  cross 
various  angles  of  the  tread  and  risers.  To  determine 
the  position  of  the  shadow  cast  by  line  A  B  upon  the 
first  riser,  take  a  line  back  at  45°  from  angle  C,  inter- 
sect the  line  A  B  in  i,  and  carry  this  point  over  to 
the  front  view,  giving  the  point  i',  from  which  draw  a 
line  at  45°,  cutting  the  edge  C  in  point  2.  The  line 
casting  the  shadow  is  parallel  to  the  receiving  surface, 


therefore  this  shadow  will  be  parallel  to  A  B  or  a  ver- 
tical line  drawn  through  2.  The  shadow  of  the  vertical 
line  A  B  terminates  in  point  3.  As  the  horizontal  line 
A  D  is  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane,  its  shadow 
must  be  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

Fig.  2.  — Cast  the  shadow  of  a  slanting  abutment 
upon  a  flight  of  steps,  also  upon  a  vertical  plane.  This 
problem  is  slightly  more  difficult  than  the  preceding, 
hut  the  principles  are  precisely  the  same  and  the  stu- 
dent should  have  no  difficulty  in  working  it,  having 
completed  Fig.  i. 


Plate  30. 


PROJECTION     or    SHADOWS 


riG.  I 


KvXf^^WWW^ 


$ 


^^^^ 


cB^ 


TRONT     VltW 


SECTION 


FIG.  Z. 


^^   -V 


\ 


FRONT     VIEW 


SECTION 


76 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  3J.  — We  have  the  top  and  front  views  of  a 
Tuscan  base,  upon  which  to  find  the  dividing  line  of 
light  and  shade.  In  this  drawing  it  is  found  by  what 
is  known  as  the  slicing  method.  That  is,  several  ver- 
tical slices  are  taken  at  various  points,  (it  is  immaterial 
where),  which  appear  as  straight  lines  in  the  top  view 
and  somewhat  resemble  the  contour  of  the  base  in  the 
front  view.  A  B  C  of  top  view,  and  A'  B'  C  in  the 
front  view,  represent  one  of  these  cutting  planes.  The 
curved  lines  from  14"  to  B'  and  B'  to  i'  are  found  by 
using  horizontal  planes  2-3,  4-5,  6-7,  8-9  and   lo-ii, 


which  appear  as  straight  lines  in  the  front  view,  but  as 
semicircles  in  the  top  view.  Points  12,  13,  14  and  15 
projected  from  the  top  view  down  to  the  corresponding 
traces  in  the  front  view  will  give  points  12',  13',  13", 
14',  14",  and  15',  through  which  to  draw  a  curve  made 
by  the  cutting  plane.  As  this  plane  is  parallel  to  the 
rays  of  light,  the  last  ray  falling  upon  the  torus  is  found 
by  drawing  a  line  at  45°  tangent  to  the  section.  This 
gives  us  point  16,  through  which  the  dividing  line  of 
light  and  shade  will  pass.  The  other  points  are  found 
in  the  same  manner. 


78 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  32.—  Find  the  shades  and  shadows  on  a  Tus- 
can capital.    The  shadows  are  found  in  this  as  in  the 


previous  plate ;  the  student  who  has  completed  that 
should  have  little  trouble  in  performing  this  problem. 


Q. 
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U 

z 
< 
o 
v> 


8o 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  33. —  This  plate  is  given  especially  to  show 
that  the  shadow  of  any  object  may  be  worked  directly 
tipon  the  front  view  without  the  use  of  a  top  view,  pro- 
vided that  the  draughtsman  knows  how  far  the  lines 
He  in  front  of  the  vertical  plane  receiving  the  shadow. 
.In  Figs.  I,  3  and  5  the:  shadows  are  cast  by  the  use  of 
the  front  and  top  views ;  in  Figs.  2,  4  and  6  the  objects 
are  identically  the  same,  the  top  view  being  omitted. 

Fig.  2. — To  cast  a  shadow  of  a  rectangular  body 
upon  a  vertical  plane.  Point  2  is  found  by  first 
making  the  distance  A  i  equal  to  A  B  in  Fig.  i,  after 
which  let  fall  from  i  a  vertical  line,  and  from  A  draw 
a  line  at  45°,  cutting  it  in  2.  Points  3  and  4  are  found 
in  a  similar  manner,  as  shown  in  this  drawing. 


Fig.  4. — Cast  the  shadow  of  one-half  of  a  hexagonal 
plinth  upon  the  vertical  plane.  Point  2  is  found  by 
making  distance  A  i  equal  to  A  B  in  Fig.  3 ;  from  i  let 
fall  a  vertical  line  and  from  A  a  line  at  45°,  uitersecting 
in  2.     Points  3  and  4  are  found  in  a  like  manner. 

Fig.  6. —  We  have  a  rectangular  body  casting  a 
shadow  partly  upon  a  molded  surface  and  partly  upon 
a  vertical  plane.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  outline  of  a 
shadow  on  a  molded  surface  cast  by  a  horizontal 
line  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  is  a  curve  iden- 
tical to  its  section.  Having  found  point  i  by  the 
method  given  in  the  two  previous  problems,  it  becomes 
a  very  simple  matter  to  complete  the  outlines  of  the 
various  members  of  the  molding. 


^^i^ 


or  IBB 


^NIVZRSITT 


Plate  33. 


riG.  r. 


PROJECTION     or    SHADOWS 
riG.  3. 


no.  5. 


FIG.  e. 


riG.  4. 


riG.  6. 


82 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  34.  Fig.  i.— This  plate  illustrates  the  method 
of  casting  the  shadow  of  a  chimney  upon  the  roof 
of  a  building.  The  student  should  notice  that  vertical 
lines  cast  lines  of  shadow  parallel  to  the  angle  of  the 
roof  on  which  they  are  thrown.  Horizontal  lines  that 
are  parallel  to  the  oblique  plane  cast  horizontal  lines 
of  shadow,  and  horizontal  lines  that  are  at  right  angles 
to  the  vertical  plane  cast  lines  of  shadow  at  45°. 

Fig.   2. — The  principles  in  this  problem  are  car- 


ried out  as  in  Fig.  i.  The  beam  A  projects  the  dis- 
tance 1-2  beyond  the  surface  of  the  building.  Point  3' 
is  found  by  letting  fall  an  imaginary  vertical  line  to  in- 
tersect the  edge  of  the  roof  in  4.  Line  4-3'  is  parallel 
to  the  angle  of  the  roof,  which  line  is  cut  by  a  45°  line 
from  3. 

Fig.  3. —  The  shadow  cast  in  the  niche  is  found 
by  the  slicing  method,  as  described  and  carried  out  in 
Plate  31. 


•^pTOe^; 


OF  THi 


UNIVERSITT 


SpA 


S^IFOfiT^ 


Plate  34. 


FIG.   I. 


riG.  t. 


PROJECTION    or  SHADOWS 


FRONT    VIEW 
FIG.  3 


84 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  35.  Fig.  i. — The  shadow  cast  by  the  line 
A  B  of  the  plinth  upon  the  cylinder  may  be  found  by 
drawing  lines  from  A  and  B  at  45°,  intersecting  in  i, 
and  with  i  as  center  and  1-2  as  radius  describing  an  arc 
cutting  the  45°  lines  in  3  and  4.  Let  drop  a  vertical 
line,  4-5,  which  will  be  the  dividing  line  of  the  light 
and  shade  of  the  cylinder.  Shadow  line  A  3  is  cast 
by  a  horizontal  line  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  ver- 
tical plane,  and  as  we  have  noted  before  such  a  line 
always  casts  a  shadow  at  45°.  The  arc  3-'4  is  really 
part  of  an  ellipse,  but  is  foreshortened  exactly  enough 
to  appear  as  an  arc  of  a  circle.  Cast  the  shadow  upon 
the  vertical  plane  according  to  principles  brought  out 
in  the  preceding  problems. 

Fig.  2. —  Find  the  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade 
on  both  the  circular  plinth  and  cylinder.  The  shadow 
cast  upon  the  vertical  plane  may  be  found  by  points  or 
by  method  given  in  Fig.  4,  plate  26.  The  intersection 
of  the  shadow  upon  the  vertical  plane  with  the  cylinder 
in  I  will  locate  the  first  point  of  shadow  upon  the  cylin- 
der.    Point  I  will  also  determine  the  height  of  2,  as  it 


will  be  seen  in  the  top  view  that  they  are  equally  distant 
from  the  central  ray  R,  which  passes  through  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder.  Point  3,  which  lies  in  ray  R,  is  de- 
termined by  first  revolving  ray  R  in  the  front  view 
until  it  becomes  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  in  line 
4-5  (at  an  angle  35°  16").  This  line  swung  back  to  its 
apparent  angle  of  45°  will  intersect  the  horizontal 
from  point  6  in  3.  Point  8  is  found  bj'  cutting  the 
dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  with  an  arc  which  is 
drawn  with  9  as  center  and  9-7  as  radius.  The  arc 
7-8-5  is  the  shadow  of  a  portion  of  line  A  B  upon  an 
auxiliary  plane  which  is  supposed  to  be  passed  through 
the  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  at  an  angle  of  45° 
with  the  vertical  plane.  This  plane  is  represented  in 
the  top  view  as  C  D.  Fig.  3  demonstrates  by  actual 
projection  that  a  horizontal  circle  (such  being  the 
lower  surface  of  the  plinth),  will  cast  a  circular  shadow 
upon  an  oblique  plane  at  45°.  The  actual  shape  of  the 
shadow  cast  upon  this  plane  is  elliptical,  but  it  is  so 
foreshortened  as  to  appear  circular. 


Plate  35, 


riG.  I. 


FIG.  2. 


Fie.  5. 


0         4 


PROJECTION    or    SMADOWS 


86 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  36. —  Before  beginning  this  plate  the  stu- 
dent should  thoroughly  understand  the  principles 
brought  out  in  the  previous  sheet. 

Fig.  I. — The  half  column  is  resting  with  its  axis 
against  the  vertical  plane  upon  which  the  shadow  is 
cast.  Points  i  and  i'  on  the  contour  of  the  torus  are 
found  by  drawing  45°  tangents.  As  the  object  is  sym- 
metrical, 3  will  be  on  a  level  with  i.  Point  5'  is  the 
lowest  point  in  the  curve,  and  is  found  by  revolving  a 
ray  of  light  until  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane,  when 
it  will  become  tangent  to  the  torus  in  2.  Project  point 
2  over  horizontally  until  cut  by  a  ray  brought  back 
from  5  at  45°.  The  shadow  cast  by  the  dividing  line 
of  light  and  shade  on  the  torus,  upon  the  vertical  plane, 
will  pass  through  points  i,  5,  3',  4'  and  i'.  Point  5 
is  found  in  the  axis  which  is.  resting  upon  the  vertical 
plane.  3'  is  cast  by  3,  which  distance  in  front  of  the 
vertical  plane  is  equal  to  3-6.  From  6  let  fall  a  ver- 
tical line  to  be  cut  by  a  45°  line  from  3  in  3'.  Point 
4'  is  cast  by  4,  the  distance  of  whi^h  in  front  of  the 
vertical  plane  is  equal  to  4-7.  Lay  off  4-7'  equal  to 
4-7,  and  proceed  as  in  the  last  point  explained. 

The  method  of  casting  the  shadow  of  line  A  B  is  ex- 
plained in  plate  26.  The  dividing  line  of  light  and 
shade  of  the  torus  will  cast  a  shadow  upon  the  cj 


rr^^^ 


Points  8  and  9  are  on  the  same  level,  8  being  the  inter- 
section of  the  colunm  and  the  shadow  already  found 
upon  the  vertical  plane.  Point  5"  will  be  the  highest 
point  in  the  curved  shadow,  being  cast  by  the  lowest 
point  (5')  of  the  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  on  the 
torus,  and  the  same  revolved  ray  is  used  in  finding  5" 
as  when  obtaining  5'.  Point  10  is  found  similarly  to 
point  8  on  plate  35,  Fig.  2.  In  this  figure  however, 
we  have  the  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  of  the 
torus  instead  of  a  circle,  casting  a  shadow  upon  the 
imaginary  oblique  plane.  The  shadow  of  this  dividing 
line  will  produce  an  oval  curve  passing  through  points 
4,  3"  and  5.  The  intersection  of  this  oval  curve  with  the 
dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  on  the  column  will  give 
point  10.  The  shadow  of  point  3  upon  the  oblique 
plane  will  give  3".  This  is  found  by  passing  a  hori- 
zontal plane  through  3,  producing  a  horizontal  circle, 
the  shadow  of  which,  when  cast  upon  the  oblique  plane, 
gives  arc  11-3".  This  arc  cut  by  a  45°  line  from  3  gives 
3".     Point  1 1  is  found  as  in  point  7,  on  plate  35,  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  2. — The  dividing  lines  of  light  and  shade  upon 
this  object  are  so  simple  that  explanations  are  not 
necessary. 

Fig.  3. — First  find  the  dividing  line  of  light  and 
shade  of  the  torus,  as  in  Fig.  i.     The  fillet  may  be  con- 


OF 


Plate  36. 


FIG.  I.        /\ 


nc.  3.     / 


v- 


M 


N^.   _   ■;.     ^ 


J. 


"f 


riG.  t/ 


g'/^^/'.'.v//  '  '^.'.^.- -'--'Al 


PROJECTION     or    SHADOWS 


riG.  4. 


'■■y 


SB 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


sidered  as  a  portion  of  a  cylinder  and  the  shadow  found 
as  in  Fig.  i.  The  shadow  upon  the  coktmn  is  cast  by 
the  fillet.  Point  i  is  found  as  point  8,  in  plate  35,  Fig. 
2.  Point  2  is  found  by  projecting  back  at  45°  from 
point  2',  which  point  is  cast  by  the  shadow  of  the  fillet 
crossing  the  oval  curve,  both  being  upon  the  oblique 
plane.  Points  t,  and  4,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparison 
with  Fig.  I,  are  located  approximately  by  tangents  at 
45°,  this  being  near  enough  for  all  practical  use. 

Fig.  4. — The  shadow  cast  upon  the  vertical  plane 
differs  little  in  principle  from  that  in  Fig.  i.  The  hori- 
zontal line  of  the  abacus,  which  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  vertical  plane,  will  cut  ofif  a  patch  of  light  on  the 
echinus  at  45°  in  line  1-2.  As  the  object  is  symmetri- 
cal it  is  evident  that  the  front  horizontal  line  will  pro- 
duce a  similar  patch  of  light.  This  being  so,  point  i 
may  be  projected  over  horizontally  to  i',  and  3  over 
to  3'.  Points  4'  and  5'  are  found  by  projecting  from  4 
and  5,  which  points  are  caused  by  the  intersection  of 
the  oval  curve  and  the  shadow  of  the  lower  line  of  the 


abacus  upon  the  oblique  plane.     Points  5  and  6  are 
equal  distances  from  the  axis. 

Plate  37. — The  student  having  thoroughly  compre- 
hended the  preceding  plate,  will  have  little  difficulty 
in  working  this,  as  we  have  here  a  union  of  the  several 
members  explained  in  that  sheet.  Line  1-2  is  cast  by 
the  lower  line  of  the  fillet.  Line  3'-4  is  cast  by  a  por- 
tion of  the  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  of  the  quar- 
ter round.  Points  3  and  3',  which  are  cast  by  the 
dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  of  the  quarter  round 
are  found  by  projecting  back  a  line  at  45°  from  3", 
which  point  is  caused  by  the  intersection  of  the  oval 
curve  and  the  shadow  cast  by  the  lower  line  of  the 
fillet  upon  the  oblique  plane.  Arc  5-6  represents  an 
imaginary  shadow  of  the  astragal  cast  upon  the  oblique 
plane,  cutting  the  dividing  line  of  light  and  shade  of  the 
column  in  6.  Strictly  speaking,  the  dividing  line  of 
light  and  shade  of  the  astragal  would  not  cast  an  arc  of 
a  circle ;  but  it  so  nearly  approaches  a  true  circle  that 
it  is  considered  as  such. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


INSTRUMENTAL  PERSPECTIVE. 


An  instrumental  perspective  of  any  object  is  sup- 
posed to  be  drawn  upon  a  transparent  plane  with  the 
eye  stationed  at  some  particular  point  in  front.  While 
looking  at  any  object  from  this  fixed  point  through 
the  transparent  plane,  lines  may  be  imagined  drawn 
upon  it  which  would  cover  the  outlines  of  the  object; 
as  for  instance,  one  might  stand  in  front  of  a  window 
and  trace  upon  a  pane  of  glass  the  outlines  of  a  build- 
ing in  the  distance.  Such  a  tracing  would  illustrate 
an  instrumental  perspective.  Line  A  B  in  Plate  38 
represents  the  top  view  of  this  transparent  plane,  called 


the  picture  plane  (P.  P.).  C  D  in  the  front  view  rep- 
resents the  intersection  of  the  transparent  plane  and 
the  ground  plane,  and  is  called  the  ground  line  (G.  L.). 
E  F,  which  is  also  in  the  front  view,  represents  the 
horizon  line,  (H.  L.),  and  is  located  upon  the  trans- 
parent plane.  The  distance  between  this  and  the 
ground  line  is  governed  by  the  height  of  the  eye  above 
the  ground.  The  distance  from  the  picture  plane  to 
the  eye,  or  station  point  (S.'P.),  as  presented  in  the  top 
view,  indicates  the  distance  the  observer  is  from  the 
picture  plane. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


91 


Plate  38. —  Draw  two  geometric  solids  of  given 
dimensions  at  angles  of  45°  to  picture  plane,  with  the 
station  point  2 '-4"  in  front  of  the  picture  plane,  the 
horizon  line  13"  above  the  ground,  the  angle  A  10"  to 
the  left  of  station  point,  and  angle  B  10"  to  the  right  of 
station  point,  and  i"  within  the  picture.  Scale  }  in. 
equals  i  in.  The  principal  lines  may  be  located  by 
actual  measurement  as  follows:  Margin  lines  12" 
X  19".  G.  L.,  2y  above  lower  margin.  P.  P., 
8"  above  lower  margin.  S.  P.,  10"  to  right  of  left 
margin. 

The  vanishing  points  of  any  system  of  parallel  lines 
may  be  found  by  drawing  a  line  from  the  station  point 
parallel  to  that  system  of  lines  until  it  intersects  the 
picture  plane.  Therefore,  to  find  the  vanishing  points 
of  the  rectangular  bodies  given  in  the  top  view,  draw 
from  the  station  point  lines  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the 
objects,  which  will  cut  the  picture  plane  in  vanishing 
points  I  and  2  (V.  P.  1,  and  V.  P.  2).  As  the  front 
edge  of  the  cube  is  resting  against  the  picture  plane 
we  have  simply  to  project  it  down  to  the  front  view 


and  measure  off  its  actual  length,  1-2  from  the  ground 
line.  From  points  i  and  2  draw  lines  to  V.  P.  i  and 
V.  P.  2.  The  length  of  these  lines  is  determined  by 
drawing  lines  from  3  and  4  to  the  station  point,  inter- 
secting the  picture  plane  in  5  and  6.  From  s  and  6 
project  vertical  lines,  cutting  the  lines  already  drawn 
from  I  and  2  and  forming  two  edges  of  the  cube. 
From  point  3'  draw  a  line  to  V.  P.  2 ;  from  point  4' 
draw  a  line  to  V.  P.  i,  intersecting  the  line  from  3'  in  7. 
The  back  edge  of  the  cube  may  be  found  by  letting 
fall  a  vertical  line  from  point  7  to  intersect  lines  to  the 
vanishing  points  from  points  3"  and  4". 

The  second  object  does  not  rest  against  the  plane, 
therefore  its  front  vertical  line  cannot  be  measured 
directly,  as  in  the  first  problem.  We  must  prolong  the 
plane  of  one  of  its  sides,  and  in  this  case  we  will  pro- 
long the  left-hand  one,  meeting  the  picture  plane  in 
point  8.  Drop  a  vertical  line  from  this  point,  which 
line  will  be  upon  the  picture  plane.  Being  upon  the 
picture  plane  its  true  length  can  be  measured  on  this 
line,  giving  8'-9.     Dravy  lines  from  points  8'  and  9  to 


92 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


V.  P.  I,  locating  the  plane  in  which  the  square  is  con- 
tained. Draw  a  line  from  point  lo  to  the  station  point, 
intersecting  the  picture  plane  in  1 1.  Drop  a  line  from 
this  point  until  it  crosses  the  lines  drawn  from  8'  and 
9;  this  will  be  the  nearest  vertical  edge  of  the  object. 
The  rest  of  the  problem  is  worked  out  on  the  principles 
illustrated  in  the  cube. 

In  casting  shadows,  we  may  suppose  the  light  to  be 
coming  downward  from  the  left  in  rays  parallel  to  the 
picture  plane  and  45°  with  the  ground.  Vertical  lines 
will  always  cast  horizontal  lines  of  shadow  upon  a 
horizontal  plane,  and  vertical  shadows  upon  a  vertical 
plane.  A  line  casting  a  shadow  upon  a  plane  parallel 
to  itself  will  produce  a  parallel  line  of  shadow ;  in 
other  words,  this  line  of  shadow  will  go  to  the 
V.  P.  of  the  line  casting  it.  In  the  cube,  line 
1-2  being  vertical,  will  cast  a  horizontal  line  of  shadow 
on  the  ground,  which  will  be  cut  off  by  a  line  drawn 
from  point  2  at  an  angle  of  45°,  giving  point  12. 
Line  2-4',  being  horizontal,  will  cast  a  line  of  shadow 
parallel  to  itself  on  the  horizontal  plane ;  and  as  one 
extremity  of  the  line  strikes  the  horizontal  plane  at 


12,  a  line  drawn  from  12  to  V.  P.  2  will  be  this  line 
of  shadow,  wliich  will  be  intercepted  at  point  13  by 
the  second  rectangular  object.  Should  the  vertical 
line  under  point  4'  cast  a  shadow,  this  shadow  would 
extend  across  the  ground  plane  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion, and  upon  reaching  the  vertical  plane,  would 
take  a  vertical  direction  until  cut  by  a  ray  of  light  at 
45°  from  point  4',  giving  point  14.  Connect  points 
13  and  14,  completing  the  shadow  of  line  2-4'.  A  por- 
tion of  the  line  4-7  is  parallel  to  the  receiving  surface, 
consequently,  its  shadow  must  be  parallel  to  it,  or  go 
to  its  vanishing  point;  therefore,  draw  a  line  from  14 
to  V.  P.  I,  which  will  determine  its  direction.  The 
process  of  finding  the  shadow  of  the  remainder  of  the 
cube  is  similar  to  that  already  found. 

The  main  portion  of  the  second  figure  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  first.  The  shadow  of  the  apex  of  the  tri- 
angle is  found  by  letting  fall  an  imaginary  line  until 
it  intersects  the  horizontal  plane  in  15,  and  intersect- 
ing the  horizontal  shadow  of  this  imaginary  line  by  a 
line  of  45°  from  the  apex  in  point  16.  Having  found 
the  several  points  connect  them  by  straight  lines. 


Plate  38. 


94 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  39.  — Draw  a  pyramid  of  steps  according  to 
given  dimensions  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  picture 
plane.  The  station  point  is  2'-4"  in  front  of  the  picture 
plane,  the  horizontal  line  9"  above  the  ground  line, 
angle  A  7"  to  the  left  of  station  point  and  2"  within 
the  picture.  Scale  \  in.  equals  i  in.  The  prin- 
cipal lines  of  the  diagram  may  be  located  by  actual 
measurement  as  follows :  Draw  margin  lines  12"  x 
19";  G.  L.,  i|"  above  lower  margin;  P.  P.,  tV' 
above  lower  margin;  and  S.  P.,  11"  to  right  of  left 
margin.  The  vanishing  points  and  station  point  do 
not  appear  upon  this  and  the  following  sheets  for 
want  of  space ;  but  they  will  be  upon  the  plates  drawn 
by  the  student,  if  he  follows  the  measurements  given. 
In  this  and  in  all  other  sheets,  carry  out  system  of 


lettering,  as  in  lirst  plate.  Angle  A  is  found,  and 
the  first  step  is  drawn  by  principles  illustrated  in  Plate 
38.  To  find  the  second  step,  prolong  its  right-hand 
face  until  it  intersects  the  picture  plane  in  point  i. 
Project  a  line  downward  and  measure  upon  it  the 
thickness  of  the  first  and  second  steps  from  point  i'. 
Draw  lines  to  V.  P.  2,  which  will  determine  the  up- 
per and  lower  lines  of  the  step.  Project  point  2  down 
perspectively,  as  before  done  with  A,  until  it  inter- 
sects these  two  lines,  which  will  give  the  nearest  ver- 
tical edge  of  the  second  plinth.  Complete  the  step. 
Find  the  prism  by  the  same  method.  The  shadows 
in  this  drawing  are  so  simple  that  they  need  no  ex- 
planation. 


^  UBRA^ 


Plate  39. 


96 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  40t  — Draw  a  box  of  given  dimensions,  hav- 
ing the  lid  thrown  back  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the 
horizontal  plane.  The  long  sides  of  the  box  is  to 
be  at  an  angle  of  30°  with  the  picture  plane,  the  sta- 
tion point  23"  in  front  of  picture  plane,  the  horizon 
line  12"  above  the  ground  line,  angle  A  2"  to  the 
right  of  station  point  and  1"  within  the  picture. 
Scale,  \  in.  equals  i  in.  The  principal  lines  of  the 
diagram  may  be  located  by  actual  measurements,  as 
follows:  Draw  margin  Hues  i2"x  19";  G.  L., 
j"  above  lower  margin  ;  P.  P.,  6"  above  lower 
margin;  and  S.  P.,  6"  to  right  of  left  margin.  The 
main  lines  of  this  box  are  placed  at  angles  of  30°  and 
60°,  instead  of  45°  as  in  previous  drawings;  accord- 
ingly lines  drawn  from  the  station  point  to  obtain  the 
vanishing  point  should  also  be  at  30°  and  60°,  in 
other  words,  parallel  to  the  main  lines  of  the  object. 
The  long  oblique  lines  of  the  cover  of  the  box  may 
be  obtained  by  projection,  as  shown  in  this  drawing, 
or  by  finding  their  vanishing  point.  To  do  this,  take 
V.  P.  I  as  a  center,  the  distance  to  the  station  point 
as  a  radius,  and  describe  an  arc  cutting  P.  P.  in  i. 


Project  point  1  down  to  the  H.  L.,  giving  i'. 
I'"rom  i'  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  slant  line  of  the 
cover,  (at  45°),  intersecting  a  vertical  line  drawn 
through  V.  P.  I,  which  point  will  be  the  vanishing 
point  of  the  oblique  lines  of  the  cover.  The  vanish- 
ing point  of  the  short  oblique  lines  will  be  found  by 
drawing  a  line  from  i'  downward  parallel  to  the  cor- 
responding edges  of  the  cover  (at  45°)  until  it  inter- 
sects the  vertical  line  passing  through  V.   P.   i. 

The  shadow  cast  in  the  box  may  be  found  by  pass- 
ing any  assumed  vertical  plane  as  2-3,  parallel  to  the 
picture  plane,  and  appearing  as  a  straight  line  in  the 
top  view ;  which  plane  produced  in  perspective  will 
cut  the  end  of  the  box  in  a  vertical  line  3'-4.  The  ray 
of  light  passing  through  2'  in  this  plane  will  cut 
the  line  3'-4  in  5.  giving  one  point  of  the  shadow  cast 
by  that  line.  As  the  shadow  must  begin  at  angle  6 
we  have  simply  to  draw  a  line  from  angle  6  through 
point  5,  giving  us  the  direction  of  the  shadow.  The 
method  of  determining  other  lines  of  the  shadow  has 
already  been  given. 


Plate  40. 


98 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  41.  — Draw  the  corner  of  a  Irouse  according 
to  given  sketches,  the  front  extending  to  the  right  at 
an  angle  of  30°  to  the  picture  plane,  the  station  point 
26' -o"  in  front  of  picture  plane,  the  horizon  line  q'-o" 
above  the  ground,  angle  A  4-0"  to  the  right  of  station 
point  and  4-0"  within  the  picture.  Scale,  I  in. 
equals  i  ft.  The  principal  lines  of  the  diagram  may 
be  located  by  actual  measurement,  as  follows :  Draw 
margin  lines  12"  x  19";  G.  L.,  |"  above  the  lower 
margin;  P.  P.,  7I"  above  lower  margin;  S.  P.,  8i" 


to  right  of  left  margin.  First  draw  the  two  eleva- 
tions, then  locate  the  plan  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  problem.  The  steps,  water  table,  string  courses, 
and  trim  about  the  door  and  window  should  not  be 
considered  until  the  main  walls  are  drawn.  The  stu- 
dent should  note  that  the  trim  occupies  a  different 
plane  from  that  of  brick  and  stone  work,  consequently 
it  becomes  necessary  to  use  two  separate  planes,  find- 
ing the  lines  of  brick  and  stone  in  one  and  the  trim 
in  the  other. 


Plate  41. 


1 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  42.    — The  front,  top,  and  side  views  of  a 
stable  with  its  general  dimensions  are  given,  the  per- 


spective of  which  will  appear  in  the  following  plate. 


>^  OF    TH  I-  '  * 

university! 


PLAN    AND     ELEVATIONS    or   BARN 


I 
1 


Plate  42. 


^^^^^^^^ 


.-^^^^----^iJ 


TOP     VIEW 


a  0 


-24-0- 


-24-0" 


A 


48-0 


28-0- 


SIDE    VIEW 


FRONT     VIEW 


lo; 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  43.  — Draw  in  perspective  a  barn  of  given 
dimensions  (according  to  plate  42).  The  long  side 
is  to  be  pieced  at  an  angle  of  30°  to  the  picture  plane, 
station  point  46'-o"  in  front  of  the  picture  plane,  the 
horizon  line  12 -d'  above  the  ground,  angle  A  aj'-o" 
to  the  right  of  station  point.  Scale,  \  in.  equals  i 
ft.  The  principal  lines  of  the  diagram  may  be 
located  by  actual  measurement,  as  follows :  Draw 
margin  lines  12"  x  19",  G.  L.  2\"  above  lower  mar- 
gin, P.  P.  11^"  above  lower  margin,  and  S.  P.  3"  to 
right  of  left  margin.  Draw  first  the  rectangular  body 
of  the  barn,  not  considering  any  of  its  details.  Hav- 
ing completed  the  main  body  of  the  barn  then  locate 
the  lower  lines  of  the  triangular  roof.  We  must  re- 
member that  the  gable  and  sides  of  the  roof  project 
beyond  the  barn  and  consequently  must  be  worked 
in  a  different  plane.  The  student  will  readily  see  by 
the  drawing  how  the  lines  of  the  cupola  are  deter- 
mined. 

In^  casting  the  shadows  the  light  is  considered  as 
coming  from  the  right  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The 
shadow  of  the  door  falls  partly  upon  an  oblique  plane 
and  partly  upon  the  vertical  surfaces  of  the  barn.     Tc 


find  the  shadow  upon  this  oblique  surface,  pass  a  ver- 
tical plane  1-2  parallel  to  the  picture  plane,  through 
the  edge  of  the  door,  appearing  in  the  top  view  as  a 
horizontal  line.  Project  points  i  and  2  down  per- 
spectively,  giving  i'-2'.  Connect  i'  2'  by  a  straight 
line,  and  intersect  this  line  by  one  at  45°  from  point 
3,  giving  4.  Draw  4-5,  which  will  be  the  shadow  of 
the  lower  edge  of  the  door.  The  shadow  of  3-6  will 
travel  along  in  line  4-1'  until  it  reaches  the  vertical 
surface,  and  then  up  in  a  vertical  line  until  cut  ofif  by 
a  line  at  45°  from  point  6  in  7.  Connect  points  7  and 
8.  The  principles  just  explained  should  be  carried 
out  in  casting  the  shadow  of  the  cupola  on  the  oblique 
plane  of  the  roof.  To  find  the  shadow  cast  by  the 
cornice,  use  a  vertical  plane  9-10  in  the  top  view  which 
when  projected  down  perspectively  will  produce  a 
vertical  trace  upon  the  side  of  the  barn.  This  trace, 
when  cut  by  a  line  at  45°  from  9',  will  give  point  10'. 
This  gives  the  shadow  of  one  point  of  the  cornice, 
through  which  draw  a  line  perspectively  parallel  to 
the  line  of  the  cornice.  The  remainder  of  the 
shadows  need  no  further  explanation. 


LIBRA; 


UNIVEBSITY 


CALIf  ^ 


,V^ 


I04 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  44.  — This  plate  is  given  to  illustrate  the 
simple  methods  by  which  circles  and  semicircles  may 
be  drawn  in  perspective.  Lay  out  the  diagram  and 
place  the  geometric  solids  as  given  in  this  drawing. 
The  student  should  at  this  stage  of  the  work  be  able 
to  lay  out  the  diagram  and  arrange  the  sheet  satis- 
factorily. The  figure  to  the  left  is  resting  against  the 
picture  plane,  the  station  point  being  directly  in  front. 
From  this  point  of  view  the  horizontal  circles  are  seen 
as  perfect  ellipses,  the  long  diameters  of  which  are  hor- 
izontal lines;  but  if  seen  from  a  point  to  the  left  or 
right  the  diameters  will  appear  to  slant.  The  same 
figure  placed  to  the  right  illustrates  this.  In  this  the 
horizontal  circles  become  so  much  distorted  as  to  ap- 


pear unnatural.  This  should  be  corrected  as  far  as 
possible  in  practical  work.  Of  course  an  exaggerated 
case  is  shown.  In  the  first  figure  the  left  vertical  semi- 
circle is  found  by  dividing  the  semicircle  into  a  certain 
number  of  equal  parts,  finding  the  perspective  of  each 
point  in  the  semicircle  separately,  and  through  these 
points  drawing  the  elliptical  curve.  The  lines  of  the 
arch  on  the  right  portion  of  the  same  figure  are  found 
by  enclosing  the  semicircle  within  a  semi-octagon,  and 
after  placing  the  semi-octagon  in  perspective,  draw  the 
ellipse  which  shall  pass  through  the  center  point  of 
each  line,  or  in  other  words,  be  tangent  to  the  sides  of 
the  octagon.  Either  method  may  be  used  for  the  up- 
per horizontal  circles. 


Plate  44 


zo6 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  45. — This  plate  gives  the  front  and  side  views 
of  a  simple  tomb  to  be  drawn  according  to  measure- 


ments given,  the  perspective  of  which  will  appear  on 
Plate  46. 


ELEVATIONS    <^   TOMB 


Plate  45. 


-26-0- 


FRONT     VltW 


Slot     VltW 


to3 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  46.  — If  possible,  this  plate  should  be  worked 
upon  a  large  sheet  of  paper  which  may  be  made  a  ver- 
tical or  a  horizontal  sheet,  as  will  better  fit  the 
problem.  The  principles  brought  out  in  this  plate  dif- 
fer but  little  from  those  already  presented.  In  laying 
out  the  cornice  only  two  or  three  main  outlines  will 
be  found  necessary.     Having  found  these,  connect  the 


points  or  extremities  of  the  lines  by  the  various  curves. 
The  student  should  make  an  effort  to  have  the  station 
point  as  far  in  front  of  the  picture  plane  as  possible, 
so  that  the  vanishing  points  may  be  some  distance 
apart ;  otherwise  the  building  will  appear  very  much 
distorted. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  47.  — Draw  in  perspective  the  simple  out- 
line of  a  building  of  given  dimensions  at  an  angle  of 
45°  to  the  picture  plane.  Station  point  46'-o"  in  front 
of  the  picture  plane,  horizon  line  6'-o"  above  ground 
line,  angle  A  6'-o"  to  the  left  of  station  point.  Scale,  ^ 
in.  equals  i  ft.  The  principal  lines  of  the  diagram 
may  be  located  by  actual  measurement,  as  follows : 
Draw  margin  line  12"  x  19",  ground  line  sV  above 
lower  margin,  station  point  gY'  to  the  right  of  left 
margin.  This  plate  presents  a  method  in  which  hori- 
zontal lines  may  be  measured  without  the  use  of  the 
top  view.  The  principles  of  finding  the  vanishing 
points  in  this  drawing  differ  little  from  those  in  the 
foregoing  sheets.  In  this  method  the  points  are  found 
directly  on  the  horizon  line  without  the  use  of  the  top 
view.  The  measuring  points  are  found  by  taking  V. 
P.  I  as  center  and  with  radius  V.  P.  i  to  S.  P.,  de- 
scribe an  arc  cutting  the  horizon  line  in  M.  P.  i ;  M. 
P.  2  is  found  in  a  similar  manner.  The  student  will 
readily  see  that  all  horizontal  lines  are  measured  by 


means  of  triangles,  one  side  of  which  vanishes  to  the 
measuring  point.  To  measure  19-0"  upon  the  hori- 
zontal line  drawn  from  angle  A  to  V.  P.  i,  lay  off 
i9'-o"  on  the  ground  line  to  the  left  of  A,  giving  B, 
from  this  point  draw  a  line  to  M.  P.  i,  which  is  the 
measuring  point  of  all  lines  going  to  V.  P.  i.  The 
22'-o"  line  going  to  V.  P.  2  is  laid  off  to  the  right,  and 
from  that  point  taken  to  M.  P.  2.  The  reason  why 
the  line  drawn  from  B  to  M.  P.  i  measures  the  re- 
quired distance  A  C,  is  shown  in  the  diagram,  which 
indicates  the  lines  as  they  actually  exist.  Line  A'  B' 
is  contained  in  the  ground  line  as  A  B.  A'  C  takes 
the  place  of  A  C.  Connect  B'  C  and  we  have  an 
isosceles  triangle.  The  student  should  note  that  a 
line  drawn  from  S.  P.  to  M.  P.  i  is  parallel  to  B'  C, 
and  that  M.  P.  i  consequently  becomes  the  vanishing 
point  of  line  B  C,  which  cuts  A  C  equal  to  A  B.  The 
system  of  measuring  vertical  lines  does  not  differ 
from  that  already  presented. 


Plate  47. 


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Vp. 

ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  48.  — Draw  in  perspective  a  flight  of  steps 
and  an  adjacent  post,  according  to  the  given  dimen- 
sions, placed  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  picture  plane. 
Station  point  11 '-6"  in  front  of  the  picture  plane, 
horizon  line  5'-4"  above  the  ground  line,  angle  A 
2'-6"  to  the  right  of  the  station  point  and  9"  within 
the  picture.  Scale,  f  in.  equals  i  ft.  The  prin- 
cipal lines  of  the  diagram  may  be  located  by  actual 
measurement,  as  follows.  Draw  margin  line  12"  x 
19",  ground  line  4J"  above  the  lower  margin,  sta- 
tion point  gi"  to  the  right  of  left  margin.  One  of 
the  principal  features  to  be  brought  out  in  this 
problem  is  the  finding  of  a  point  within  the  picture. 
Point  A  is  2'  6"  to  the  right  and  9"  within  the  picture. 


From  the  line  of  direction  lay  off  2'-6",  giving  point 
B.  From  this  point  draw  a  line  to  C.  V.  It  is  evident 
that  any  horizontal  line  drawn  between  these  lines  will 
be  just  2'-6".  From  point  B  lay  off  9"  on  the  ground 
line  to  the  left,  giving  point  C.  From  C  draw  a  line 
to  V.  P.  2,  cutting  the  line  already  drawn  in  A.  The 
diagram  to  the  left  shows  these  lines  in  their  relative 
position.  The  line  that  measures  a  line  going  to  the 
center  of  vision  should  always  go  to  a  45°  vanishing 
point,  no  matter  at  what  angle  the  object  may  be 
turned.  Having  obtained  this  first  point  within  the 
picture,  proceed  as  in  the  last  problem,  making  all  the 
vertical  measurements  on  the  picture  plane. 


Plate  48 


CHAPTER   VII. 


ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Plate  49.  — This  plate  gives  the  Tuscan,  Doric, 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders,  according  to  the  pro- 
portions set  forth  by  Vignola,  in  which  the  module  is 
used  as  a  unit  of  measurement.  The  composite  order 
is  purposely  omitted  in  this  series,  it  being  little  tised 
and  differing  but  slightly  from  the  Corinthian.  This 
■plate  is  not  given  as  an  exercise  in  drawing,  but  as 
a  reference  sheet  to  show  the  main  proportions  of  the 


several  colunms.  The  module,  according  to  Vignola, 
is  equal  to  ^  the  diameter  of  the  column  measured 
inmiediately  above  the  conge  on  the  base.  This 
module  is  divided  into  twelve  parts  when  used  for 
the  Tuscan  and  Doric,  but  into  eighteen  parts  for  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian.  The  measurements  on  the 
plate  are  given  in  modules  and  parts ;  the  first  figures 
indicating  modules,  and  the  second,  parts. 


ii6 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  50.  — The  drawing  in  the  lower  right-hand 
corner  gives  a  simple  elevation  of  a  tomb  in  which 
the  Tuscan  order  is  used.  The  drawing  to  the  left 
occupying  a  large  portion  of  the  plate,  represents  the 
working  drawing  of  one  of  its  columns  and  entabla- 
ture, drawn  acording  to  the  proportions  given  by 
Vignola.  The  measurements  are  indicated  in 
modules  and  parts,  and  also  by  feet  and  inches,  which 
are  reckoned  to  the  nearest  eighth  of  an  inch  to  which 
they  figure  mathematically,  this  being  near  enough 
for  all  practical  purposes.  This  plate  may  be  drawn 
by  the  use  of  a  scale  of  modules  or  by  feet  and  inches, 
the  result  being  practically  the  same  in  either 


The  elevation  of  the  tomb  being  very  small  many  of 
the  lines  are  omitted  by  necessity. 

The  technical   terms   applied   to  the  various   parts 
are  as  follows : 


A — Quarter  round. 
B — Astragal. 
C— Fillet. 
D — Corona. 
E— Listel.    . 
F^ — Ogee. 
G — Frieze. 
H— Listel. 
I — Architrave. 
J— Listel. 
K — Abacus. 


L — Quarter  round. 
-M— Fillet. 
N— Neck. 
O — Astragal. 
P— Fillet. 
O— Shaft. 
R— Shaft. 
S — Conge. 
T— Listel. 
U — Torus. 
V— Plinth. 


-goi- 


-p-> 


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-f?-t,'* — S*" 


^^^ 


I 


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4 


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u     a      u 


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K-^2 -»K- 1 7->t<-f 7-»i*|x 

1.-: ^1^— ^-x'" 


I."      «"  ■• 


Ii8 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  St.  — The  drawing  in  the  lower  right-hand 
corner  of  this  plate  represents  an  entrance  drawn  in 
the  Doric  style.  That  occupying  the  remainder  of 
the  plate  is  a  working  drawing  of  one  of  the  columns 
and  a  portion  of  the  entablature.  The  method  of 
drawing  and  placing  measurements  is  similar  to  that 
carried  out  in  the  previous  plate. 


A — Cymatium  or  cyma  recta. 
B — Mutule  with  drops  underneath. 
C — Capitals  of  the  triglyphs. 
D — Triglyphs  with  channels. 
E — Drops. 
F — Metope. 


Plate  52. 


oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 


oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 

nooooo 


ooooo 
ooooo 
ooooo 
ooooo 
ooooo 
ooooo 


iOOOOOO 

oooooo 
oooooo 


DORIC     ORDER 
PLAN    LOOKING    UP 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  53. — This  plate  presents  the  working  drawing 
of  a  window  in  which  the  Ionic  order  is  used.  The 
drawing  of  the  window  is  particularly  helpful  to  the 
student,  in  that  it  shows  how  to  obtain  the  general 
efifect  without  drawing    all    of    its  details.     The  en- 


larged sketch  of   the    volute    is    given    to    show  the 

method  of  construction. 

A— Dentils.  E— Egg  shell. 

B— Volute.  F— Dart. 

C— Lintel  of  the  volute.      G — Pods. 

D-Egg. 


g^^. 


LIBRA/ 


OF  Tf 


CALIFOJ^ 


124 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  54. — The  drawing  to  the  right  represents  a  A- — Volute, 

porch   in   which   the   Corinthian   order  is   used  ;   and  B — Small  stem, 

that  to  the  left  is  a  working  drawing  of  one  of  its  C — Great  leaf, 
columns  and  entablature. 


D— Small  leaf. 
E — Rosette. 


Plate  55, 


CORINTHIAN      ORDER 
PLAN    LOOKING  UP 


in 


q: 

hi 
Q 

a: 
O 

g 

o 
a 

I 
o 

< 


in 


132 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  58.  — This  sheet    presents    several    forms  of  derived  by  making  the   drawings   much   larger  than 

balusters  in  general  use.     A  greater  benefit  will  be  in  this  plate. 


~^        OT 


^  CALlFOSlJiJ' 


00 


-5 
Q- 


Kyc^t 


u 
a 
< 

m 

I- 
(/) 

_j 
< 

CD 


^m 


-\ 


w 


Va^ 


\\^Va 


134 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  59.  — This  sheet  represents  several  typical 
mouldings  drawn  in  section  and  elevation.  In  order 
to   secure    beautiful    profiles   upon    moulding^s   they 


should  be  drawn  freehand.  The  surfaces  of  the 
mouldings  may  be  rendered  with  India  ink,  as 
shown  in  the  plate. 


in 

0. 


13') 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  60.  — This  and  the  five  following  plates  are 
leproduccd  from  drawings  made  by  students  of  the 
French  school  of  architecture.  They  are  given  in 
this  series  to  supplement  the  orders  and  will  be  par- 


ticularly helpful  in  rendering.  The  student  should 
note  the  skillful  draughtmanship  with  which  these 
plates  are  drawn  and  the  excellent  printing  upon  them. 


^'^      OF  twr.  "^ 

■UNIVEBSITY^ 
CALIFO^!: 


o 

ID 

<t> 

■♦-' 

D. 


.'^^^      OF  TBr 

XJNIVEBSTTY^ 


a. 


Plate   63, 


(i 


JO 

a. 


CHAPTER    Vlll. 


STUDY  OF  A  FRAME  HOUSE. 


Plate  66. — With  this  plate  we  begin  the  stiuly  of  a 
series  of  drawings  showing  phms,  elevations,  framing 
and  various  details  of  a  wooden  building. 

A  plan  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  horizontal 
section  passing  through  the  walls  and  partitions  a  few 
feet  above  the  floor,  showing  the  interior  arrange- 
ments. The  student  should  note  the  conventional 
method  of  representing  its  various  parts,  such  as  the 
veranda,  outside  and  inside  doors,  windows,  stairs, 
chimneys,  etc.  Portions  of  two  flights  of  stairs  are 
shown  in  this  plan,  one  leading  to  the  second  floor  and 
the  other  to  the  cellar.  In  the  plan  only  the  treads  are 
visible,  the  risers  being  covered  by  lines  which  are  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  treads.  To  obtain  an  easy  flight 
of  stairs  the  riser  should  bear  a  certain  relationship 
to  the  tread ;  that  is,  if  we  have  a  very  wide  tread  the 
riser  should  be  low,  or  if  by  necessity  the  tread  is 
narrow  the  riser  should  "be  proportionally  high.    A 


rule  that  is  used  to  some  extent  is  that  the  rise  nuilti- 
plied  by  the  tread  should  be  about  seventy  or  seventy- 
five  inches.  Fire-places  are  shown  in  both  parlor  and 
(lining  room.  The  oblong  space  in  the  masonry  be- 
tween the  tire-places  represents  the  flue  which  con- 
nects with  the  furnace  in  the  cellar.  The  inner  lines 
of  the  flues  represent  the  linings,  which  are  of  terra- 
cotta. The  flue  for  a  fire-place  will  never  appear  on 
the  same  plan  with  it,  but  is  shown  in  that  of  the  floor 
above.  The  two  doors  leading  from  the  parlor  are 
made  to  slide,  all  others  to  swing  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  single  line.  The  walls  and  partitions 
through  which  the  section  passes  should  be  tinted 
with  a  light  wash  of  burnt  sienna  or  some  similar  color. 
The  brick  work  of  the  chimney  may  be  colored  light 
red.  Section  lining  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  is  sel- 
dorri  used  in  practice ;  only  in  reproductive  work. 


r<-    Of - 


0-JI 


^ 


H' 


C- 


z 
< 


o 
o 


I- 


-J-?fi 


-0-?l- 


& 


^ 


»52 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  67.  — In  this  plan,  as  in  the  preceding,  the 
section  is  taken  some  distance  above  the  floor.  Were 
the  paper  of  sufficient  size  the  two  plans  would  be 
made  side  by  side,  in  which  case  many  of  the  principal 
lines  might  be  projected  directly  from  the  first  floor 
plan,  saving  the  trouble  of  repeating  measurements. 
All  the  principal  parts  are  represented  in  the  same 


conventional  way  as  in  the  first  floor,  the  chimney 
flues  being  nearly  over  those  of  the  first  floor.  Parts 
of  two  flights  of  stairs  are  shown  in  this  plan ;  that 
leading  downward  to  the  first  floor  being  the  comple- 
ment of  the  portion  seen  in  the  first  floor  plan,  and 
the  other  leading  to  the  attic. 


-0-91 


-9  -ze 


z 
< 


a: 
o 
o 


a 
z 
o 
o 
u 
to 


154 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  68. — The  detail  to  the  left  represents  a  ver- 
tical section  of  the  water  table,  passing  through  the 
foundation  and  a  portion  of  the  building  above  the  sill. 

In  making  a  detail  drawing  it  is  always  best  to  begin 
with  some  fixed  part;  in  this  case  with  the  foundation, 
sill,  floor  beam  and  stud.  Having  fixed  the  frame 
work  in  its  position,  we  next  clothe  it ;  that  is,  on  the 
outside  we  place  the  sheathing,  water  table,  clap- 
boards and  corner  board,  and  on  the  inside  draw  the 
under  flooring,  lath  and  plaster,  base  board,  and  final- 


ly, the  finished  floor.    The  order  given  is  similar  to  that 
followed  in  actual  construction. 

The  drawing  on  the  right  side  of  the  plate  repre- 
sents the  elevation  of  this  section.  All  horizontal  lines 
may  be  projected  directly  from  the  section  to  the  ele- 
vation ;  and  as  will  be  seen,  the  members  in  both  sec- 
tion and  elevation  project  the  same  distance  from  the 
body  of  the  house.  The  wood  work  should  be  tinted 
with  a  light  wash  of  burnt  sienna,  and  the  stone  work 
may  be  covered  with  a  very  pale  wash  of  blue. 


_—        LRSITT  ) 


Plate  68. 


FINISHED    FLOOR        i       i^\i 


FLOOR  BETAM 


i^CORNtR 

BOARD 


6"--  > 


SECTION  THROUGH 
WATER-TABLE 


156 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  69.  — To  draw  this  plate  we  proceed  as  in  the 
last,  beginning  with  the  frame  work,  drawing  first 
the  stud  and  then  placing  the  plate  and  rafter,  cutting 
it  to  the  desired  shape  to  fit  the  trim.  Complete  the 
details  as  given  in  drawing.  The  shingles  on  the  roof 
are  i8"  long  and  show  5"  to  the  weather,  their  widths 


varying  as  shown  in  the  elevation. 

The  drawing  at  the  right  represents  the  elevation, 
and  in  this,  as  in  the  last  plate,  vertical  measurements 
can  be  obtained  by  projecting  horizontal  lines  from 
the  section.  The  offsets  in  the  section  and  elevation 
are  equal. 


'  UNIVERSITY 


Plate   69 


Kj^yj^f-AktHtP/^/m  \  • 


_ ^ 

r 

\, 

1 

^ 


SECTION    THROUGH 
CORNICE 


158 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  70.  — The  two  sections  given  upon  this  plate 
represent  cornices  dii?ering  in  form  from  that  in  Plate 
65.  The  one  on  the  left  shows  the  gutter  built  into 
the  roof  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  be  noticeable  from 
the  street.  This  form  of  gutter  is  built  up  with 
boards  and  lined  with  some   kind   of  metal,   usually 


copper,  sheet  lead  or  tin.  The  metal  should  be  al- 
lowed to  run  up  under  the  shingle  for  some  distance. 
The  section  on  the  right  shows  the  construction  of  a 
cornice  suitable  for  a  curved  roof.  The  method  of 
constructing  the  gutter  in  this  case  is  similar  to  the 
first,  differing  only  in  minor  details. 


Plate   70. 


r4 


"II 


$  PLANCHER  $$:\: 


DETAIL     or     CORNICES 


i 


i6o 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  71. — This  plate  shows  still  other  forms  of 
constructing  the  cornice,  and  their  appearance  when 
drawn  to  a  small  scale.  This  is  intended  especially 
for  a  suggestive  sheet,  t(j  assist  the  student  when  de- 
signing. 


In  the  three  plates  of  cornice  designs  given,  the 
draughtsman  can  get  an  idea  of  the  types  in  general 
use ;  and  with  this  knowledge  will  be  able  to  vary  the 
details  as  may  best  suit  his  design. 


Plate  71. 


I63 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  72.  — This  drawing  represents  a  vertical  sec- 
tion passing  through  the  veranda  cornice,  showing  the 
various  i)arts  in  their  relative  positions.  It  should 
be  drawn  as  nearly  full  size  as  possible.     After  placing 


the  column,  locate  the  cornice  and  the  foundation  ac- 
cording to  nieasureinenls  given.  The  column  is  sup- 
ported by  the  sill,  and  also  by  the  girder  which  joins 
the  sill  directly  under  the  column. 


UNIVERSITY 
CALIFOR^ 


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■//,y///////////,y///A 


,>>)■  >ii.vi//r/iii,. 


=  r 


i64 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWTNG. 


Plate  73.  — The  tlrawing'  on  the  left  of  the  plate 
represents  a  i)ortion  of  the  elevation  of  a  window. 
The  drawing  on  the  right  is  a  horizontal  section  of  a 
window  frame.  In  this,  first  draw  the  studs,  after 
which  place  the  sheathing,  laths  and  plaster  as  shown. 
Place  the  other  details  in  their  relative  positions  as 


given  in  the  drawing,  according  to  dimensions.  For 
a  better  understanding  of  the  details,  consult  isometric 
views  of  the  window  in  Plate  "JJ.  Cover  the  wood 
work  with  a  light  wash  of  burnt  sienna,  and  the  plaster 
with  a  pale  tint  of  new  blue. 


Plate    73. 


DETAIL  <"  WINDOW  FRAMEl 


^-PARTING    BEAD 


SECTION    ON    A-B 


i66 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  74.  — The  drawing  to  the  left  represents  a 
vertical  section  passed  through  the  window  sill,  and 
shows  the  studs,  header,  sill  and  various  other  details 
in  their  relative  positions.  The  angle  usually  made 
by  the  sill  and  header  is  about  15°.  The  casing, 
blind  stop,  pulley  stile,  parting  bead,  and  stop  bead 
are  seen  beyond  the  section,  their  position  being  ob- 


tainable from  the  previous  drawing.  The  drawing  to 
the  right  gives  the  construction  of  the  upper  portion 
of  the  window,  the  positions  of  the  principal  details 
being  taken  directly  from  the  drawing  just  described. 
The  construction  of  the  meeting  rails  is  shown  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sheet. 


Plate  74. 


DETAILS     or  WINDOW 


jk 

-  r  - 

*^ 

<         li-|> 

0. 

u      1 

v- 

=!  '^ 

0 

2 

0) 

rt 

0 

< 

z 

u 

J 

-1 

rrr55; 

a 

i  i 

"Mi 


SECTION     ON     r-G 


SECTION     ON     c-D 


SECTION     CN     H-l 


I6S 


ARCHITFXTURAL    U RAWI NG. 


Plate  75. — This  plate  gives  two  more  forms  of  con- 
structinjj^  the  window  sill.  In  the  drawing  on  the  left 
the  sheathing  is  allowed  to  extend  into  the  sill,  giving 
greater  protection  from  the  outer  elements.  The 
stool  is  ploughed  into  the  sill,  making  a  very  strong 
neat  trim. 

The  drawing  to  the  right  shows  the  general  method 


of  putting  together  the  window  frame  when  the  sill 
and  sub-sill  are  used.  They  should  be  splined  to- 
gether to  form  a  greater  protection  against  the  wind 
and  water,  as  the  up]ier  sill  is  verv  likely  to  draw  awav 
from  the  lower  or  sub-sill  by  the  action  of  sun  and 
rain.  The  other  details  are  essentially  the  same  as 
given  before. 


DETAILS     or   WINDOW 


Plate  75. 


VERTICAL     SECTION 


VERTICAL      SECTION 


I70 


ARCHITbXTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  76.  — The  drawing'  on  the  left  represents  a 
vertical  section  through  the  upper  portion  of  the  win- 
dow, and  differs  only  in  minor  details  from  the  one 
already  ,sfiven. 

The  drawing  on  the  right  is  a  horizontal  section 
through  the  window.    In  this  the  blind  stop  runs  back 


beyond  the  outside  casing,  so  permitting  the  clap- 
boards to  lap  over  and  keep  the  outer  atmosphere 
from  entering  the  house.  The  ground  is  carried  across 
the  pocket  and  joins  the  pulley  stile,  again  making  it 
more  difficult  for  air  to  penetrate.  The  other  princi- 
l)les  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  previous  plate. 


DETAILS    or    WINDOW      FRAME 


Plate  76. 


-ID'S 


mm 


VERTICAL     SECTION 


HORIZONTAL     SECTION 


172 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  77.  — This  plate  gives  an  isometric  view  of 
the  lower  and  upper  section  of  the  window  frame.  It 
is  presented  to  give  the  students  a  clear  conception  of 


the  manner  in  which  the  various  parts  of  the  window 
go  together,  and  not  as  an  exercise  in  drawing. 


Plate  77. 


ISOMETRIC      DRAWING 
WINDOW      FRAME 


174 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  78.  — The  drawing  to  the  left  shows  a  portion 
of  the  elevation  of  a  door  and  frame,  and  the  drawing 
to  the  right  is  a  horizontal  section  taken  through  A  B. 
In  making  the  section,  it  is  well  to  begin  with  the 
double  studs  and  then  to  place  the  ground,  laths, 
plaster,  and  finally  the  jamb  and  casings.    The  jambs 


are  rabbeted  to  receive  the  door,  instead  of  using  the 
nailed  door  stop  which  is  very  likely  to  become  dis- 
placed. Draw  the  mouldings  as  given  in  the  illustra- 
tion, taking  great  care  with  the  curved  lines  to  keep 
them  smooth  and  of  the  same  strength  as  the  straight 
lines. 


r-  OF  THE  ' 

UNIVERSITY 


r^ 


DETAIL  <"'    DOOR   FRAME 


Plate  78. 


u*  ^ 


SECTION     ON    A-B 


176 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  79.  — The  drawing  on  the  left  portion  of  the 
sheet  represents  one  of  the  best  methods  of  supporting 
the  floor  joists  of  the  second  floor  upon  the  partition 
below.  The  studs  of  the  second  floor  should  be  al- 
lowed to  extend  through  between  the  joists  (as  shown 
in  the  drawing),  thus  resting  directly  on  the  cap,  and 
not  upon  a  sole  laid  on  the  under  flooring. 

The  drawing  to  the  right  shows  the  proper  way  of 


supporting  a  light  partition  that  runs  jjarallcl  to  the 
floor  beams  below.  The  partition  should  be  sup- 
ported by  at  least  two  floor  timbers,  which  are  suf- 
ficiently spread  to  allow  proper  nailing  of  the  upper 
flooring  to  the  joist.  The  details  of  flooring,  base- 
l)oard,  lath  and  plaster,  are  similar  to  those  in  previous 
sheets. 


Plate  79. 


SECTION 
FLOOR  ' 


THROUGH 
0    PARTITION 


PAPTITlON  RUNNING 
AT  RIGHT  ANGLES 
TO  TLOOR  JOIST 


PARTITION      Running 

PARALLEL  WITH  FLOOR 
JOIST 


178 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  80.  — Havint;-  completed  the  various  detail 
drawings  the  student  has  acquired  sufficient  knowl- 
edge to  enable  him  to  make  an  intelligent  drawing  of 
an  elevation.  That  is,  he  should  now  comprehend 
that  all  the  various  lines  of  the  windows,  doors,  cor- 
nices, and  other  parts,  have  a  real  meaning. 

Before  beginning  the  elevation,  it  is  always  wise 
to  draw  a  vertical  section.  In  this  section  are  indi- 
cated the  levels  of  the  foundation,  sill,  floor  timbers, 
windows,  girders  and  plate.     The  main  outlines  of  the 


building,  and  the  position  of  the  windows,  doors, 
columns,  and  chimney  can  be  taken  directly  from  the 
plans.  The  vertical  heights  of  the  various  details  are 
projected  directly  across  from  the  section.  The  two 
details  at  the  left  of  the  elevation  are  not  to  be  drawn 
by  the  student,  but  are  placed  there  simply  as  an  aid, 
being  nearly  the  size  of  the  required  drawing,  if 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  \  in.  equals  i  ft.,  which  scale  is 
very  common  for  houses  of  this  type. 


Plate  80. 


,,1- 


TRONT    ELEVATION 


l8o 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  81.  — This  drawing  is  to  be  carried  out  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  last,  the  principal  horizontal 
measurements  being  taken  from  the  plans,  and  the 
vertical  measurements  from  a  section,  or    from    the 


front  view  already  drawn.     It  would  now  be  well  for 
the  student  to  draw  another  view  without  the  aid  of  an 

illustration. 


Plate  81. 


SIDE     ETLEVATION 


l82 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  52.  — In  a  frame  house  the  outlines  of  the 
sills  generally  coincide  with  the  outlines  of  the  plan. 
Having  drawn  the  sills  in  their  proper  positions,  we 
next  locate  the  girders  which  are  usually  placed  un- 
der the  main  partitions,  as  in  this  drawing.  Trimmers 
and  headers  should  then  be  located  about  the  stair 
wells   and   chimneys.     Where   partitions   do   not  rest 


upon  a  girder,  the  floor  should  be  reinforced  by  an 
extra  joist.  Last  of  all,  place  the  center  lines  of  the 
floor  timbers,  which  are  usually  from  16"  to  20"  apart. 
The  floor  timbers  in  the  piazza  run  parallel  to  the 
building,  and  their  tops  are  in  a  plane  which  inclines 
slightly  downward  from  the  house. 


1 84 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  83.  — This  drawing  is  carried  out  in  the  same 
general  order  as  given  in  the  first  floor  framing  plan, 
the  raised  and  drop  girt  taking  the  place  of  the  sill, 
and  the  partition  cap  the  place  of  the  girder.  Locate 
the  proper  trimmers  and  headers,  after  which  place 


the  remaining  floor  timbers.  The  student  will  also 
notice  that  in  the  piazza  the  plate  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  sill  and  the  rafters  the  place  of  floor  timbers. 
The  rafters,  however,  are  at  right  angles  to  the  floor 
beams. 


1*  OF  TBK  t^ 

UNIVERSITY 


i86 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  84.  — In  this  drawing  the  student  should  first 
locate  the  sill,  then  the  corner  posts,  raised  girt,  attic 
floor  beams,  plate  and  rafters.  The  lengths  of  the 
sills  are  taken  from  the  plans,  and  the  vertical  height 
of  the  posts  from  the  vertical  section  on  Plate  80.  All 
windows  and  openings  are  located  from  the  plan,  their 
height  being  in  the  section  on  Plate  80.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  openings  for  the  windows  are  con- 
siderably wider  than  in  the  plan.     The  difference  is 


made  to  allow  for  the  space  occupied  by  the  pulley 
stiles  and  pockets,  which  in  small  cottages  is  about 
6".  When  we  speak  of  a  window  3'-o"  wide,  we  mean 
that  the  sash  is  3'-o",  in  other  words,  the  space  from 
pulley  stile  to  pulley  stile.  The  studs  are  usually 
placed  12"  or  16"  from  center  to  center,  and  are  indi- 
cated by  a  single  center  line.  The  piazza  is  not  given 
on  the  front  side  of  the  building,  as  it  would  compli- 
cate the  drawing,  but  a  section  is  shown  on  one  side. 


Plate  84. 


^ 

^y 

^ 

\ 

y7\ 

^ 

L 

:ih"1l 

C 

*('V'  vT2'-»'- 

.  r9% 

^ 

yy 

n 

NX 

It'. 

// 

iJ 

■^ 

c 

vf      "' 

^Uuuu                   1 

1    II 

A    1 

r: 

;   ^  " 

MM  "m  f 

r 

-.«, 

»*h 

'•» 

ji^-_ 

/ 

-6^ 

—  r    '^ 

-      S'.fi-  , 

v< 

t^ 

CO 

^ 

*^ 

-err       -. 

.«. 

•I6- 

r-li'*-^^ 

s  *r 

1 

V 

Tn 

^,,^;;>^^ 

1 — 

^     V                  t    1 

1       III     1    Jl 

ifT 

Li 

// 

1  1 

f 

f^^ 

1   1  l~" 

■-- r 

ll 

1 

^ 

1  1 

t 

,, 

*a 

— »'«--. 

■ 

4-5'-9'- 

* 

^ 

^—s-e . 

- 

«■/-}- 6-  t 

i 

to 

^"  1  A 

r-'-  - 

■ftj  I 

— 



-  — 1 — 

- 

_  _ 

•■■     1 

z 

H «_— .. ^ 

m — . L. 

TRAMING      FRONT     ELEVATION 

l88 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  85.  — This  plate  requires  little  explanation,  as 
the  method  pursued  is  not  unlike  the  foregoing  sheet. 
The  student  may  note  that  the  ends  of  the  floor 
timbers  and  the  6"  faces  of  the  corner  posts  are  shown. 


This  view  also  presents  the  drop  girt,  which  supports 
the  floor  beams  of  the  second  floor,  and  the  ledger 
board  which  supports  those  of  the  attic. 


Plate  85. 


-B    «    a 


-36'— 1 
—  9--0' 


n    «    III m 


FTl^ 


B In   >w Idl — h_,. 


n  un 


OBQP      SIR' 


IX] 


1    I   »    I  n    I    n 


6-0"     — -»-^ 


FRAMING      SIDE      ELEVATION 


lyo 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  86.  — This  isometric  view  of  the  framing  of 
the  corner  of  a  house  is  not  given  as  an  exercise  in 


drawing,  but  to  help  the  student  who  is  not  familiar 
with  the  subject  to  locate  the  different  parts. 


00 

a. 


a:  o 
o 


I-  z 


10  ic 


192 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  87.  — The  foundation  is  built  up  to  the  grade 
level,  or  height  at  which  the  ground  will  be  left,  with 
i6"  undressed  stone  masonry;  and  from  that  level  to 
the  sill  line,  with  dressed  stones  12"  thick.  As  will  be 
seen  by  the  detail  drawing  of  the  water  table  in  Plate 
68,  the  outside  line  of  this  stone  wall  and  the  rough 
boarding  are  in  the  same  plane ;  consequently  we  must 
add  the  two  thicknesses  of   sheathing  boards,  if",  to 


the  measurements  given  in  the  plan.  For  instance, 
if  the  front  of  the  house  measures  25'-o",  the  founda- 
tion should  be  25'-!  |".  The  piers  in  the  cellar  are  lo- 
cated under  the  principal  girderf,  and  those  under  the 
piazza  should  be  directly  in  line  with  the  columns. 
Tint  the  cellar  walls  gray  or  brown,  according  to  the 
stone  in  use.     If  the  piers  are  of  brick,  tint  them  red. 


r  THH 

'university 


tl 


--'-•« -r^ 


mmm 


CO       y. 


ij 


% 


^ 


i-..o.. 


„^l  9  I 


icdf 


k     OS 

IS 


>'  * 


^ll-OI 


-^ 


1    ii  I  ; 


t.. 


Size 


a 


r* ;.«-.«  ■ 


m 


Q 


P 
1. 


•i 


T.TI.S- 


p  - 


^ 


i 


y.0.-.8-^ 


m-\ 


z 
< 


"    < 


u 


H 


-m 


—  .,0-,l  ( 


ii--* 


194 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  88.  — The  drawing  to  the  left  represents  the 
elevation  of  a  chimney,  showing  fire-places  on  the  first 
and  second  floors  and  the  position  of  the  flues  from 
the  two  fire-places  and  the  furnaces.  Sections  A-B, 
C-D  and  E-F  show  the  mafmer  of  representing  such 
in  a  plan.  Section  G-H  gives  the  general  construction 
of  the  fire-place,  showing  the  flue  to  the  ash  pit,  the 
trimmer  arch,  the  fire-brick  lining  in  the  fire-place, 


the  manner  of  narrowing  the  throat  and  the  position 
of  the  terra  cotta  linings  in  the  main  flue.  The  chim- 
ney should  always  be  constructed  with  an  8"  wall 
around  the  flue  or  be  lined  with  terra  cotta  linings,  as 
shown  in  this  drawing;  these  linings  are  about  I"  in 
thickness,  and  come  in  sections  2'-o"  long.  They  are 
built  into  the  flue  during  the  construction  of  the  chim- 
ney. 


00 

00 


0- 


196 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  89.   — Several    of    the    general    methods    of 

splicing  timbers  are  illustrated    in    this    plate.     The 

I  measurements  are  given  merely  to  assist  the  student 


in  drawing,  as  they  differ  materially  in  practice,  ac- 
cording to  conditions  and  the  kind  of  lumber  used. 


CTl 
CO 


TXT 

I  I  I 


LA. 


TPT 


-l+tf 


I 1 

1 
-I 


I 


TT" 


TT 

t44 


rr- 

I  I 


;:{^ 


:;-[ 


-:i 


]  J   M 


9 


4.3 


198 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  90.  —Fig.  1  shows  the  front  and  top  views 
of  a  sill,  corner  post  and  stud,  and  the  manner 
of  framing  the  parts  together.  Figs.  2,  3  and  4  show 
different  methods  of  framing  sills  together.  Fig.  5 
shows  the  method  of  supporting  a  floor  timber  upon  a 
girder  by  means  of  an  iron  stirrup.  Fig.  6  gives  a 
very  simple  method  of  supporting  a  floor  timber  upon 
the  girder.  This  is  done  by  bolting  a  2"  x  4"  joist 
upon  the  lower  edge  of  the  girder  and  allowing  the 
floor  timber    to    be    notched    out    to  rest  upon  this. 


Where  this  method  is  employed  iron  dogs  should  be 
used  frequently  to  prevent  the  floor  timbers  from  pull- 
ing away  from  the  girder.  Fig.  7  shows  the  method 
of  constructing  the  regular  tusk  and  tenon  joint. 
The  objection  to  this  joint  is  that  it  is  frequently  made 
in  a  careless  manner,  bringing  the  full  weight  upon  a 
small  portion  of  the  tusk,  which  is  liable  to  give  way 
and  cause  serious  settlement.  If  made  properly,  how 
ever,  it  is  a  very  good  form  of  joint  to  use. 


Plate  90. 


riG.    I. 


§ 


L 


Mi   I 


r-H    I 


TOP    VIEW 

i     1 

f-r 
-  It" 


■1 


L_ 


■'J  I 


FRONT  VIEW 
riG.    z. 


^^ 


9^ 


FRONT  VIEW 

FIG.      3 

SIDE    VIEW 

I^^C^ 



^GW^    1 

^^l^Hy 

k^'^^ 

■^    1 

FRONT    VIEW  SIDE     VIEW 

FIG.      4. 


fPf^ 


^^ 


FRONT   VIEW 


SIDE      VIEW 


FIG.      S. 

— n 


-iC 


"^ 


TOP     VIEW 


.^1, 


-16 


FRONT     VIEW 
FIG.      G. 


'-5^ 

t 
.  1 

Its 

FRONT    VIEW 


SIDE     VIEW 


-3 


FRONT     VIEW 


SIDE   VIEW 


CHAPTER    IX. 


STUDIES  IN  MASONRY  CONSTRUCTION. 


Plate  9J.  — In  this  plate  are  given  several  forms  of 
arches  in  general  use,  and  the  names  which  are  ap- 
plied to  their  various  parts. 

Fig.  I  shows  a  relieving  arch  placed  over  a  lintel  in 
such  a  way  as  to  take  the  weight  from  the  lintel  below. 
This  form  of  arch  should  be  used  whenever  there  is 
danger  of  a  lintel  becoming  injured  by  a  heavy  strain, 
or  where  wood  is  used,  which  may  decay  or  be  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  Fig.  2,  on  which  the  names  of  the 
various  parts  are  indicated,  represents  two  segmental 


arches.  The  segmental  arch  has  for  its  intrados  a  seg- 
ment of  a  circle.  Fig.  3  gives  the  drawing  of  a  flat 
arch,  or  one  that  has  a  straight  line  for  its  intrados. 
In  practical  construction,  this  line  should  curve  up 
slightly,  as  the  arch  is  likely  to  sag  as  the  building 
settles.  Fig.  4  represents  a  semicircular  arch,  or  one 
that  has  for  its  intrados  a  semicircle,  Fig.  5,  a 
pointed  arch  or  one  that  has  for  its  intrados  arcs  of 
circles,  the  chords  of  which  usually  form  two  sides  of 
an  equilateral  triangle. 


Plate  91. 


h 


Id! 


:i 


'^ 


/' 
/ 

FIG.     I. 


^^ 


»  Pier  . 

{,    Abutmeisjt 

c  S  PAN . 
<i  Rise  . 

•  Haunch 

/  Intrados. 


^     EXTRAOOS 

A   Keystone 

i     VOOSSOIRS 

A.  Springikio  . 

In  SpaNDREU   . 
o    3kE>A/BACK  . 


Center. 


-i 

— P" 

RELIEVING     ARCM. 


SEMICIRCULAR  . 


-I 


.  ^ 

y 

1 

^z- 

^'o'— . 

[ 

"  \ 

AO 


ii 


^ 


>  < 

\ 

"1,       ' 

-  4'0  - 

1 

1 

riG.   2. 

SEGMENTAL     ARCM. 


FIG.      3. 
ri_AT    ARCH 


FIG.       5. 
POINTED     ARCH 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  92.  — This   sheet  is   planned   particularly  to 
show  the  principal  methods  of  constructing  a  stone 


wall.     The   illustrations  are  so  simple  that  explana- 
tions are  hardly  necessary. 


Plate  92. 


.4 
? 

■He* 

t-13'-* 

«—'*'-* 

I 


REGULAR  COURSCO     MASONRY  SECTION 


i~~r 


I         I     — r 


XT 


"TT" 


F  ^^W^^ 


IRREGULAR      COURSED  RANDOM    WORK  im   LtVEL  COURSES 


t-'~! 

!'r^  -. 

pr^ 

..J 

^ij 

ra] 

C3 

Ifri 

flZ^l 

1:^^.4 

c 

n 

r^jl 

C3; 

1     |i     1      h-^l 

—J  1 

,T^ 

1 

h 

i^Y 

M 

ROCK     FACED     REGULAR     COURSED  SECTION 


TMIN    ASHLAR    FACING 


RANDOM    ASHLAR 


IE 


m 


RUBBLE     IN    LEveu  COURSES 


RANDOM    RUBBLE 


A.  QUOIN    STONES 


204 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  93.  — We  have  the  first  and  second  floor  plans 
of  a  city  house  of  moderate  cost.  This  house  is  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  several  in  a  block,  therefore  the 
two  side  walls  become  party  walls.  The  width  of  the 
house  is  given  to  the  centers  of  the  party  walls.  The 
conventional  method  of  representing  the  various  parts 
in  this  plan  dift'ers  little  from  that  of  the  cottage,  the 


principal  difference  being  in  the  manner  of  represent- 
ing the  windows.  The  laundry  is  located  in  the  cellar, 
of  which  there  is  no  drawing  in  this  series.  The  walls 
which  are  section  lined,  may  be  tinted,  using  light 
red  for  the  brick  work,  and  a  light  wash  of  burnt 
sienna  for  the  wooden  partitions. 


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ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  94.  — The  vertical  section  on  tlie  left  should 
be  drawn  first,  according  to  dimensions  given.  The 
positions  of  the  windows  and  door  may  be  obtained 


from  the  plan.  Usually  it  will  be  found  desirable  to 
draw  this  to  a  larger  scale  than  that  used  in  this 
drawing. 


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208 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING. 


Plate  95.  — This  drawing  gives  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  sections  through  a  window  frame  as  con- 
structed in  a  brick  or  stone  house.  The  principal 
features  are  practically  the  same  as  explained  in  the 
frame  house.     To  obtain  satisfactory  results,  the  draw- 


ing should  be  made  nearly  full  size,  placing  many 
measurements  which  are  omitted  in  this.  This  draw- 
ing will  be  found  to  correspond  to  one  of  the  lower 
windows  in  Plate  94. 


a. 


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ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING. 


Plate  96.  — This  offers  a  suggestion  for  an  interior 
in  the  Colonial  style,  which  should  be  drawn  to  a  much 


larger  scale.     In  addition  to  this,  it  would  be  well  for 
the  student  to  make  several  full-sized  detail  sections. 


Plate  96. 


'^f.*-        or  TBB 


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